m  I 


SOLAR  LIGHT  AND  HEAT: 


THE  SOURCE  AND   THE  SUPPLY. 


GRAVITATION: 


WITH   EXPLANATIONS   OF 


PLANETARY   AND    MOLECULAR 
FORCES. 


BY 

ZACHARIAH   ALLEN,  LL.D. 


NEW   YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    &     CO. 

LONDON:   D.  APPLETON  &   CO.,  16  LITTLE   BRITAIN. 
1879. 


PHYSICS 


Copyright,  1879, 
BY  ZACHARIAH  ALLEN. 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS: 
JOHN  WILSON  AND  SON,  CAMBRIDGE. 


1 


Q 


A  43 


PREFACE. 


HPHE  present  work  is  a  sequel  to  a  publica- 
tion by  the  writer,  in  the  year  1851,  enti- 
tled "  The  Philosophy  of  the  Mechanics  of 
Nature,  and  the  source  of  Natural  Motive- 
Power."  It  is  designed  to  eliminate  and  ar- 
range in  due  order  the  rudimentary  facts  and 
principles  therein  detailed,  and  to  show  their 
harmony  with  the  Laws  that  control  the  Material 
Universe. 

This  has  necessarily  involved  further  re- 
searches into  the  origin  of  Molecular  Forces, 
of  Gravitation,  and  also  of  Solar  Light  and 
Heat,  as  immediate  sources  of  Natural  Motive- 
Power. 

The  results  are  now  respectfully  submitted  to 
the  reader. 

PROVIDENCE,  R.I.,  September,  1879. 

-i  r>  *"* '   ' 

: 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION i 

Definition  of  Gravitation.  —  Vague  Conjectures  of  Philoso- 
phers.—  Cause  of  Mechanical  Motion  of  Matter  immaterial. — 
"Incapability  of  Matter  at  Rest  to  put  itself  in  Motion."  — 
Transmission  of  mechanical  Force  by  passive  Matter  —  Origi- 
nal Knowledge  of  the  Properties  of  Matter  obtained  by  experi- 
mental Investigation.  —  The  Inductive  System.  —  Discordance 
of  Mechanical,  Chemical,  and  Materialistic  Doctrines  of  the 
original  Cause  of  Motion  of  Matter.  —  Real  Source  of  natural 
Motive-Power. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  MOMENTUM  OF  THE  PLANETS  A  SOURCE  OF  NAT- 
URAL MOTIVE -POWER.  —  ESTIMATES  OF  PLANETARY 
FORCES,  MAGNITUDES,  AND  REVOLUTIONS 12 

Multitudes  of  Suns  and  Worlds.  —  Orbital  Momentum  of  the 
Earth.  —  Swift  Motion  of  Planets.  —  Table  of '  comparative 
Magnitudes  and  Velocities  of  Planets.  —  Popular  Ideas  of  the 
Reasons  for  the  Revolving  'Movements  of  the  Planets;  as  for 
producing  Day  and  Night  for  Animal  Refreshment,  Seed-time 
and  Harvest.  —  Utilization  of  an  universal  Electric  Ether  for 
diffusing  the  Impulses  imparted  to  the  swiftly  revolving  Plan- 
ets.—  The  Phenomena  of  the  Movements  of  Matter  on  the 
Earth's  Surface  are  producible  by  the  mechanical  Impulse 
imparting  Rotation  to  one  Cylinder  of  a  Holtz's  Electrical  Ma- 
chine opposite  to  the  other;  a  Movement  analogous  to  the 
Rotation  of  the  Earth  opposite  to  the  Globe  of  the  Sun.  — 
Electric  Vibrations  of  Nerves.  • 


vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    III. 

PAGE 

ALL  SPACE,  NOT  OCCUPIED  BY  OTHER  MATTER,  is  OCCU- 
PIED BY  A  UNIVERSALLY  DIFFUSED  AND  INVISIBLE 
ELECTRIC  MEDIUM 23 

Original  Discovery  of  the  Existence  of  the  Electric  Ether.  —  It  is 
the  general  Medium  for  transmitting  Mechanical  Impulses. — 
No  void  Space  in  the  Universe.  —  The  minute  Spaces  between 
Atoms  pervaded  by  the  Electric  Ether.  —  Every  Movement  of 
Molecules  and  Bodies  in  the  electric  Medium  disturbs  its  State 
of  Rest,  and  produces  its  Motion  either  in  Vibrations,  or  Cur- 
rents. When  these  pass  through  the  conducting  sensorial 
Nerves  of  the  Eye  to  the  Brain,  the  Effect  is  recognized  as 
Light;  when  through  Nerves  of  feeling  in  the  Body,  it  is  recog- 
nized as  Heat.  The  Movement  of  a  metallic  Disc  near  a  Disc 
of  Sealing-wax  excites  such  dazzling  bright  Sparks  as  to  have 
obtained  for  this  Apparatus  the  descriptive  Name  of  Electro- 
phorus,  "  Sunshine  Producer." — All  kinds  of  Electrical  Ma- 
chines produce  Movements  of  the  Electric  Ether,  by  putting  in 
Motion  grosser  tangible  Bodies,  commonly  Cylinders,  Globes, 
or  Magnets  arranged  to  revolve  about  an  Axis,  like  the  Planets. 
—  Swift  rotating  metallic  Plates  of  soft  Iron :  they  cut  tem- 
pered Steel. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  PERFECT  REGULARITY  OF  THE  DAILY  ROTATION  OF 
THE  EARTH  SERVES  AS  THE  STANDARD  MEASURE  OF 
TIME,  SPACE,  WEIGHT,  QUANTITY  OF  MATTER,  AND 
MECHANICAL  FORCE 39 

Sub-divisions  of  Time.  —  Length  of  a  Day.  —  Length  of  a  Pen- 
dulum. —  Rotation  of  the  Earth.  —  The  Foot-pound.  —  A 
Horse-power.  —  Equivalent  of  Heat  in  Foot-pounds. 


CHAPTER   V. 
POPULAR  THEORIES  AS  TO  THE  SUN .      42 

Theory  of  the  Combustion  of  Gases,  —  of  pounding  Meteors,  etc. 
—  The  Sun  travelling  through  Space.  —  The  Sun  composed  of 
elementary  Substances  similar  to  those  of  the  Earth,  as  estab- 
lished by  the  Spectrum  Analysis.  —  Thirty-one  terrestrial 
Metals  kaown  to  exist  in  the  Sun. 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PAGE 

THE    EXCITING    CAUSE    OF    SOLAR    LIGHT    AND    HEAT 

TRACED  TO  THE  MECHANICAL  FORCE  OF  THE  REVOLV- 
ING HEAVENLY  BODIES 46 

Circulating  Currents  about  the  Earth  excited  by  its  daily  Rotation 
convert  it  into  a  great  Electro-magnet.  —  The  other  Planets  of 
our  System  are  similarly  excited.  —  The  Sun,  seven  hundred- 
fold greater  than  all  the  Planets,  also  excited  by  a  swift  Rotation 
on  its  own  Axis  ;  thus  they  are  all  polarized.  —  Electric  Cur- 
rents around  the  Sun.  —  Intense  electric  Excitation  of  the  Solar 
Electro-sphere  ;  analogous  to  the  Aurora  Borealis.  —  Open- 
ings at  Times  through  the  Electro-sphere,  constituting  "  Spots 
on  the  Sun."  —  Extent  and  effects  of  Solar  Spots ;  their 
Relation  to  the  Movements  of  Compass-needles.  —  Planets  are 
Electro-Magnets.  —  The  Sun  a  Centre  of  Reaction ;  Analogy 
of  the  "  Calcium  Light."  —  Stellar  Suns  also  Centres  of  Re- 
action. —  Each  Sun  represents  the  Action  on  the  Electric  Ether 
of  all  the  Planets  circling  around  it.  —  Heat  carried  off  by 
Electric  Currents.  —  Faraday's  Metallic  Chamber.  —  The  Sun 
as  a  bright  and  cheerful  Dwelling-place.  —  So  long  as  the 
Planets  revolve,  the  Sun  will  shine. 

CHAPTER   VII. 

ARTIFICIAL  EXCITATION  OF  LIGHT  BY  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINES 55 

The  excitation  of  Light  by  revolving  Magnets  strictly  analogous 
to  its  natural  Excitation  by  the  revolving  magnetic  Planets.  — 
Magneto-electric  Lighthouses  in  England  and  France.  —  Ef- 
fects of  Electric  Light  equal  to  those  of  Sunshine.  —  Mechani- 
cal Difficulties  of  Adjustment.  —  Amount  of  Motive-power  re- 
quired. —  Conversion  of  Motive-power  into  Light  and  Heat. 
—  Extent  of  Electric  Light  measured  by  mechanical  Force.  — 
The  Solar  System  a  sublime  Magneto-electric  Machine. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  SENSORIAL  NERVES  CONSIDERED  AS   INSTRUMENTAL 
TESTS  OF  PHYSICAL  SCIENCE 59 

The  Sensorial  Nerves  modify  Solar  Reaction.  —  The  Signals  they 
transmit  unintelligible  to  the  new-born  Child.  —  Colors,  Odors, 
Flavors.  —  Inattention  to  the  true  Functions  of  the  Nerves  a 
serious  Obstacle  in  the  Way  of  Knowledge.  —  Causes  and  Effects 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

blended.  —  Table  of  different  Names  given  to  the  same  Electro- 
Mechanical  Action  transmitted  through  the  five  Sensorial 
Nerves.  —  Imponderable  Agents  of  Nature,  so  called.  —  The 
Optic  Nerves  Tests  of  Heat. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

CORRESPONDING     VIBRATIONS     TRANSMITTED     BY     THE 
ATMOSPHERIC  AND  THE  ELECTRIC  ETHER 63 

These  are  illustrated  by  the  Telephone.  —  Also  by  the  Voice  and 
Musical  Sounds.  —  Vibrations  converged  by  Lenses.  —  Light 
and  Sound  perpetually  transmitted.  —  The  differences  in  Colors 
and  in  Musical  Tones  due  to  a  varied  Rapidity  of  Vibrations. 

—  Extent  of  Vibrations  recognizable  by  the  Ear.  —  Prismatic 
Colors.  —  Table  of  Vibrations  in  Chromatic  Scale  of  Colors. 

—  The  cessation  of  Vibrations  of  the  Electric   Ether  results 
in  Silence,  Darkness,  and  Cold. 


CHAPTER   X. 

CONVERTIBILITY  OF  VIBRATIONS  OF  HEAT  INTO  ELECTRIC 
CURRENTS 68 

Classified  as  Thermo-Electricity.  —  A  Magnetic  Needle  is  more 
sensitive  than  a  Thermometer.  —  The  metallic  Bars  of  aThermo- 

•  Electric  Battery,  with  Ice  applied  to  one  End  and  a  hot  Body  to 
the  other,  represent  the  Conditions  of  the  Polar  and  Equatorial 
Regions  of  the  Earth,  exciting  the  flashing  Auroral  Currents. 
—  Vibration  of  Molecules  of  Mercury  in  Tubes  of  Thermom- 
eters produces  Expansion  as  a  Test  of  Temperature. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

POPULAR    DOCTRINES    OF    ELECTRIC    AND    MOLECULAR 
VIBRATION,  DENOTED  HEAT 78 

Existing  scientific  Opinions  as  to  Heat.  —  Mr.  Tyndall  gives  no 
Solution.  —  Ideas  very  unsettled.  —  A  Warfare  of  Molecules.  — 
"  Wild  Stone  Avalanches."  —  Table  of  Dynamic  Action  of 
Molecules.  —  Continual  Vibration  of  Molecules.  —  Diffusion  of 
the  Momentum  of  the  Solar  System  by  Electric  Currents  and 
Vibrations.  —  Rotation  of  Planets  excites  Currents.  —  Currents 
counteract  Vibrations.  —  Examples  of  Currents  used  to  produce 
a  Vacuum. —The  Sun  induces  Vibrations  and  causes  Rectan- 
gular Motion. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  XII. 

PACK 

ELECTRIC  ATTRACTION  AND  REPULSION  (so  CALLED)  ARE 
RESULTANT  MOVEMENTS 93 

Matter  receives  and  transmits  Impulses.  —  Movements  of  Com- 
pass Needles.  —  Action  and  Reaction  of  Electrodes.  —  Example 
of  the  Wire-Frame.  —  Natural  Electric  Currents.  —  De  la  Rive's 
Rings.  —  Professor  Barlow's  Experiment.  —  Ampere's  floating 
Helix  Coil.  —  Movements  of  Dipping  Needles.  —  Varying  Posi- 
tions of  Dipping  Needles.  —  Action  of  Terrestrial  Currents. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE  CONTINUOUS  CIRCULATION  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS 
ABOUT  MAGNETS  AND  MOLECULES  SUSTAINS  THEIR 
POLARIZATION 104 

The  Transmission  of  Electric  Currents  through  Conducting  Wires 
wound  spirally  around  Bodies  produces  Electro-magnets.  —  Tran- 
sient Electro-Magnetic  Action.  —  Movements  developed  by 
Currents  are  not  in  the  Direction  of  the  Currents,  but  at  right 
angles  to  them.  —  Lateral  Movements  produced.  —  Whirling 
Movements  produced,  as  of  Tornadoes.  —  The  Direction  of  a 
Whirl  reversed,  by  reversing  the  Direction  of  the  Current.  — 
Tornadoes  produced  by  Electricity.  —  Bodies  revolved  by 
Heat.  —  Light  excites  Electric  Currents.  —  Vertical  Currents 
turn  Needles.  —  Artificial  Current-changer.  —  Effect  of  chang- 
ing the  Direction  of  Electric  Currents.- — Sudden  Reversal  of 
Currents.  — Unstable  Electro-static  Conditions.  —  Photographic 
Pictures. —  Mingled  Hydrogen  and  Chlorine  exploded  by  a 
Gleam  of  Sunshine  —  Reciprocal  Action  between  Electric  Cur- 
rents and  Magnetic  Currents.  —  The  Static  Needle.  —  Magnetic 
and  Electric  co-operation.  —  Revolving  Conducting  Wires  and 
Wheels.  —  Current-changer.  —  Six  thousand  Rotations  per 
Minute.  —  Currents  and  Magnets  combined.  —  Action  of  Lateral 
Currents. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

DlAMAGNETISM       .      .      .      .     ' 123 

The  Circulation  of  Electric  Currents  about  the  Sides,  or  equato- 
rial parts,  of  Bodies  produces  Impulses  in  a  Direction  at  right 
angles  to  that  developed  at  the  axial  End,  or  Pole.  —  While  only 
a  few  Substances,  as  Iron,  Nickel,  etc.,  develop  permanent  Polar 
Actions,  every  Substance  manifests  Diamagnetic  Currents,  sim- 
ilar to  those  about  the  Earth,  which  produce  the  horizontal 


X  CONTENTS. 

FAGB 

North  and  South  pointing  of  Compass  Needles.  —  The  same 
Compass  Needle,  when  transported  to  either  Pole  of  the  Earth, 
begins  to  dip  till  its  Direction  becomes  perpendicular  to  the 
Earth's  Surface  at  the  Pole.  —  Diamagnetic  Currents  excite 
Heat.  —  Cause  of  Internal  Heat  of  the  Earth.  —  Currents  about 
Molecules  illustrated. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

CIRCULATION  OFj  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS  IN  CLOSED    CIR- 
CUITS     127 

The  Tendency  of  all  Fluids  put  yi  Motion  is  to  return  to  the  same 
Place,  in  strict  Accordance  with  the  Universal  Law  of  Astron- 
omy, in  the  periodic  Return  of  each  Heavenly  Body  to  the 
same  Place.  —  Closed  Circuits  are  'formed  by  joining  the  two 
Ends  of  a  horse-shoe  Magnet  by  an  Armature.  —  Rings  of  Vapor 
and  spherical  Bubbles  are  produced  by  similar  Closed  Cir- 
cuits.—  The  Circulation  of  the  Diamagnetic  Currents  about  the 
Earth  and  Moon  produces  the  Electro-Magnetic  Action  be- 
tween them  which  causes  the  simultaneous  Rise  of  the  Tides 
on  both  Sides  of  the  Earth ;  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  49.  —  The 
Librations  of  the  Moon  are  maintained  by  the  Diamagnetic 
Currents  from  extending  so  far  as  to  pass  beyond  the  Limits 
of  the  Ecliptic.  The  Ascent  of  Sap  in  Trees  by  Capillary  At- 
traction is  due  to  Circulating  Diamagnetic  Currents. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

MECHANICAL  ACTION  CONSIDERED  AS  A  TEST  OF  ELEC- 
TRIC EXCITATION.  —  POPULAR  THEORIES  OF  ELEC- 
TRICITY   138 

The  comparative  Velocity  of  Transmission  of  Mechanical  Action 
by  various  Substances.  —  Tenuity  and  Velocity  of  Electricity.  — 
Transmission  of  Motive  Power  to  a  Distance  through  Con- 
ducting Wires  for  Operating  Machinery.  —  Velocity  an  Equiva- 
lent of  Power.  —  Imaginary  Telegraph  of  Lucretius. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

EXTENT  OF  SOLAR  ACTION  TRANSMITTED  TO  THE  SUR- 
FACE OF  THE  EARTH 150 

Effective  Power  of  Sunshine  in  lifting  Water  to  the  Sky  as 
Vapor.  —  The  ready  Excitability  of  Water  resembles  that  of 
Air.  —  Estimate  of  the  Volume  and  Force  of  the  Cataract  of 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGB 

Niagara.  —  Excitability  of  the  Electric  Ether  occupying  the 
Spaces  between  Particles  of  Water  and  of  other  Substances.  — 
Vibration  of  Particles  of  Water.  —  Vibration  of  Steam.  —  Vi- 
bration of  Air.  —  Source  of  Wind  and  of  Water  Power. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

THE  SOLID,  LIQUID,  AND  AERIFORM  CONDITIONS  OF 
MATTER  DETERMINED  BY  THE  EXTENT  OF  ITS  MOLEC- 
ULAR VIBRATION 157 

The  Mechanical  Force  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two  Foot- 
pounds excites  one  Degree  of  Heat  in  a  Pound  of  Water.  — 
Molecular  Vibration,  constituting  Heat,  considered  as  an 
Equivalent  of  Mechanical  Action  in  Foot-pounds.  —  Latent 
Heat  of  Steam.  —  To  convert  one  Pound  of  Ice  into  Steam 
requires  thirty  Horse-power.  —  Sudden  Disappearance  of  Heat 
from  condensing  Steam  explained.  —  Electricity  in  Steamy 
Vapors. 

CHAPTER   XIX. 

MATTER.  —  THE  AXIAL  AND  ORBITAL  FORCE  OF  THE 
REVOLVING  PLANETS,  TRANSMITTED  BY  THE  UNIVERSAL 
ETHER,  is  MODIFIED  BY  THE  MECHANISMS  OF  SIXTY-SIX 
KINDS  OF  ELEMENTARY  MOLECULES 166 

Molecules  are  Machines.  —  Table  of  Elementary  Substances  and 
of  their  Chemical  Equivalents.  —  Relative  Weights  and  Volumes 
of  Molecules.  —  Molecular  Attractions  and  Repulsions.  —  Mo- 
lecular Polarizations.  —  Classification  and  descriptive  Nomen- 
clature of  Molecules.  —  Their  Ancient  Classification. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  MOLECULES  OF  OXYGEN,  CARBON,  HYDRO- 
GEN, AND  NITROGEN  AS  ELECTRICAL  MACHINES   .    .    .     175 

Molecules  of  Oxygen  pre-eminent  for  Quantity  and  Power  of  devel- 
oping Electro-magnetic  Unions  and  Separations. —  Molecules 
of  Carbon  next  in  Importance  to  those  of  Oxygen ;  their  pecu- 
liar Functions.  —  Carbonization  during  Geological  Eras  — Mol- 
ecules of  Hydrogen  rarely  found  pure  in  a  Natural  State. — 
Allied  with  Oxygen  and  Carbon  it  imparts  a  wonderful  Diver- 
sity of  Properties.  —  Its  relation  to  Acids  and  Alkaloids.  — 
Explosive  in  union  with  Chlorine.  —  Molecules  of  Nitrogen 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

modify  the  Intensity  of  Action  and  Reaction  between  all  other 
kinds  of  Elementary  Molecules.  —  Its  Relations  to  our  Atmos- 
phere —  Reverse  the  Proportions  of  Nitrogen  aud  Oxygen  in 
the  Air,  and  Nitric  Acid  would  be  produced.  —  Relations  of 
Nitrogen  to  Explosive  Substances.  —  Isomeric  Bodies.  —  Dif- 
ferent Results  from  similar  Groupings. —  Attempts  to  convert 
Resin  into  Butter.  —  Different  Kinds  of  Molecules  reflect  Vibra- 
tions *of  Light  with  different  Intensity,  corresponding  to  a 
Chromatic  Scale  of  Colors.  —  On  these  and  the  "  Frauenhoffer 
lines,"  the  Spectrum  Analysis  is  based.  —  Formation  of  Mol- 
ecules into  Crystals.  —  The  Symmetrical  Electro-magnetic 
Union  of  Molecules  in  Inorganic  Formations  of  Crystals  is 
the  Basis  of  Crystallography.  —  Cause  of  Angular  Shapes.  — 
P'orms  of  Molecules. 

CHAPTER   XXI. 

PECULIAR  QUALITIES  OF  COMPOUND  SUBSTANCES  DEVEL- 
OPED   BY    VARIOUS    RELATIVE    PROPORTIONS    OF    THE 

SAME    KINDS    OF    MOLECULES 1 86 

Vinegar,  Butter,  Vegetable  Oils,  and  Fat  produced  by  combining 
various  Proportions  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen  with  a  constant 
Quantity  of  Oxygen.  —  The  Properties  of  Drugs  and  Medicines 
developed  by  varied  Molecular  Groupings.  —  Table  of  Com- 
parative Quantities  of  Elementary  Molecules,  grouped  in  the 
Organisms  of  Plants  and  Animals,  forming  Albumen,  Fibrine, 
and  Caseine.  —  Albumen  the  starting  point  of  Animal  Tissues. 
—  Table  showing  the  relative  Proportion  of  the  four  Kinds 
of  Fluid  Atmospheric  Molecules  which  enter  into  the  organic 
Formations  of  Food  and  Fuel. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
PLANTS  AS  ELECTRIC  MACHINES 191 

Matter  Organic  and  Inorganic.  —  Plants  and  Animals  composed 
of  Congeries  of  Tubes.  — The  Leaves  of  Plants  cover  the  Sur- 
face of  the  Earth,  and  are  adapted  to  decompose  Water  and 
Carbonic- Acid  Gas  :  thus  they  are  really  Electric  Machines.— 
Thermo-electric  Circuits  between  Leaves  exposed  to  the  Sun 
and  the  Roots  buried  in  the  cool,  mo'st  Earth.  — Plants  as 
Current-changers.  —  The  Organs  of  living  Plants  Galvanic 
Batteries.  —  Equilibrium  restored  by  Chemical  Decomposition. 
-  Elementary  Molecules  of  Plants  are  the  same  as  those  com- 
posing the  Atmosphere  and  Water.  — The  two  great  Processes 
in  the  Growth  of  Plants.  —  Leaves  are  Current-changers.— 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

*  PAGB 

Electro-plating  of  model  Germs  by  the  gradual  Deposit  of 
Carbon  upon  them.  —  Variety  of  original  Germs  ;  fanciful 
Forms.  —  Sex  in  Plants.  —  Dissemination  of  Seeds.  —  Exten- 
sion of  Roots  of  Plants.  —  Electric  excitation  by  Plants.  — 
Vegetables  absorb  Carbonic-Acid  Gas  and  give  out  Oxy- 
gen. —  Animals  absorb  Oxygen  and  give  out  Carbonic- Acid 
Gas.  —  Plants  emit  Flashes  of  Light.  —  Pouillet's  Experi- 
ment. —  The  Growth  of  Plants  a  constant  Source  of  Atmos- 
pheric Electricity. 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 
ANIMALS  AS  ELECTRIC  MACHINES 200 

Electrical  Powers .  of  Animals.  —  These  Powers  strikingly  mani- 
fested by  certain  Fishes,  —  as  the  Torpedo,  Gymnotus,  etc.  — 
They  develop  Electric  Sparks  and  cause  Violent  Shocks. — 
The  Electric  Discharge  of  the  Gymnotus  equal  to  a  highly- 
charged  Battery  of  fifteen  Leyden  Jars.  —  Electric  Excitation 
causes  Muscular  Contraction.  —  An  Electric  Eel,  in  the  Royal 
Institute,  decomposed  compound  Substances,  magnetized  Steel 
Needles,  etc.  —  Capt.  Basil  Hall  prostrated  by  a  Shock.  —  A 
fine  Conducting- Wire  rendered  red  hot.  —  A  Life-guardsman 
thrown  down.  —  The  Discharges  resemble  those  of  an  Inter- 
mittent Voltaic  Battery.  —  Humboldt's  Account  of  a  Conflict 
between  Electric  Eels  and  Horses.  —  Luminosity  of  the  Lower 
Classes  of  Aquatic  Animals.  —  Electric  Light  from  the  Noc- 
tilucae,  Acalephae,  and  Annelidae.  —  Luminosity  of  the  Glow- 
worm. —  Electric  Power  excites  Animal  Muscular  Action.  — 
Experiments  on  a  Dead  Subject.  —Muscular  Contraction  illus- 
trated by  a  Spiral  Coil,  Fig.  65.  —  Intermittent  Muscular  Con- 
traction of  the  Heart,  Lungs,  and  Intestines.  —  Acidity  of  the 
Juice  of  the  Flesh  and  Alkalinity  of  the  Blood.  —  Electric 
Conduction  by  Nerves.  —  Sensitiveness  of  Nerves.  —  Plants 
are  Mechanisms  which,  excited  by  the  Solar  Rays,  produce 
Food  and  Fuel.  —  Animals  are  Mechanisms  excited  by  the 
Combustion  of  this  Food  and  Fuel.  —  Thirteen  Ounces  of  pure 
Carbon  breathed  forth,  in  Carbonic- Acid  Gas,  each  Day,  by  a 
vigorous  Man. 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 

LIFE,  —  OR   MUSCULAR  AND   NERVOUS    ACTION    DEPEND- 
ENT ON   ELECTRIC  EXCITATION 214 

Differences  in  the  Nerves  both  Qualitative  and  Quantitative.  — 
Peculiar  Arrangements  of  the  Organs  of  the  Body.  —  Distinc- 
tive Movements  of  Molecules.  —  Rythmic  Movements.  — 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Nervous  Fibrils  of  the  Eye  and  of  the  Ear.  —  Composition  of 
the  Brain  ;  four-fifths  of  it  consist  of  Water.  —  The  Brain  an 
Electric  Organ.  —  An  Acid  Fluid  exhaled  by  the  Skin,  while 
the  Mucous  Membrane  is  bathed  with  an  Alkaline  Fluid.  — 
The  Animal  Frame  thus  placed  between  a  great  Acid  and  a 
great  Alkaline  Envelope.  —  Circulation  in  the  Arteries.  — 
Violent  Muscular  Contractions.  —  Periodic  Molecular  Move- 
ment. —  Voluntary  Motions.  —  Automatic  Motions. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
DEATH,  —  OR  CESSATION  OF  ORGANIC  ACTION     ....    226 

Cessation  of  the  Continuity  of  circulating  Electric  Currents  is 
the  Suspension  of  Vitality,  denoted  Death.  —  The  Influence  of 
the  Emotions,  Volitions,  and  Passions  in  exciting  Electric 
Action.  —  A  Blow  on  the  Head  excites  stunning  Electric 
Action,  like  a  small  Lightning  Bolt.  —  Poisons  counteract  the 
regular  Circulation  of  the  Currents  ;  as  do  also  powerful 
Chemical  Agents.  —  The  Molecules  of  Hydrogen  in  the  Blood 
may  unite  with  the  Molecules  of  Oxygen  and  form  Water.  — 
The  black  Carbon  thus  left  free.  —  Analogous  Conditions  at- 
tending the  Yellow  Fever.  —  The  Bile  and  Blood  resolved 
into  Water  and  Carbon,  or  Charcoal.  —  This  manifested  by 
the  "black-vomit,"  peculiar  to  the  Disease.  —  Organic  Decom- 
positions. —  Miasma,  or  Malaria,  is  probably  free  Nitrogen 
from  decomposing  Animal  and  Vegetable  Organisms.  —  Its 
Inhalation  into  the  Lungs  facilitates  the  Combination  of  the 
Molecules  of  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  in  the  Blood,  or  its  De- 
composition, called  Blood-poisoning.  —  When  the  Vital  Elec- 
tric Currents  cease,  the  Organic  Molecules  are  restored  to 
their  normal  Condition  of  Carbonic-Acid  Gas  and  Water. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

EQUILIBRIUM  AND  PERIODICITY  OF  AXIAL  AND  ORBITAL 
REVOLUTIONS    ................    232 

Circulation  of  Electric  Currents  about  Inorganic  Bodies.  — 
Compensating  Movements.  —  Kepler's  Laws.  —  Elliptical  Orbit 
of  the  Earth  ;  how  it  may  be  caused.  —  Experiments  of  Mayer 
and  Barlow.  —  Influence  of  Terrestrial,  Magnetic,  and  Dia- 
magnetic  Currents  —  Ampere's  Experiment.  —  Movements  of 
the  Gyroscope  analogous  to  those  of  the  Earth.  —  Space  about 
Molecules.  —  Molecules  Electro-Magnets.  —  Movements  of 
Tornadoes.  —  Electric  Chain  of  the  Universe. 


SOLAR    LIGHT    AND    HEAT. 


SOLAR   LIGHT  AND   HEAT: 

THE  SOURCE,  AND   THE  SUPPLY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

/^RAVITATION  is  commonly  defined  to  be 
"  the  force  of  attraction,  by  which  all  por- 
tions of  matter  tend  towards  each  other,"  leaving 
the  mechanical  cause  of  this  force  unexplained. 

It  was  not  without  reason  that  D'Alembert 
affirmed,  "  Philosophers  are  bewildered  by  the 
spectacle  of  a  falling  stone."  The  bewilderment 
of  the  illustrious  Newton  is  manifest  on  referring 
to  the  earliest  edition  of  his  "  Principia,"  in  which 
he  says,  "  The  ultimate  particles  of  matter  are 
endued  with  inherent  forces,  or  powers  of  attrac- 
tion and  repulsion."  Subsequently,  in  treating  of 
the  universal  attraction  of  gravitation,  he  says : 
"  Gravity  must  be  caused  by  an  agent  acting  con- 
stantly, and  according  to  certain  laws ;  but  whether 
this  agent  be  material  or  immaterial,  I  leave  to 
the  imagination  of  my  readers." 

In  describing  the  properties  of  matter,  he  after- 
ward affirms,  as  the  result  of  the  long-continued 


2  VIEWS    OF    PHILOSOPHERS. 

• 

observations  of -mankind,  the   following   general 
law  of  Mechanical  Philosophy :  — 

"  Matter  at  rest  is  incapable  of  putting  itself  in 
motion,  or  of  stopping  itself,  or  turning  aside 
from  a  movement  in  a  straight  line,  when  put  in 
motion." 

There  being  no  discovered  cause  of  the  move- 
ments of  atoms  and  bodies  on  the  earth's  surface, 
the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  —  Empedocles, 
Epicurus,  and  Democritus  —  taught,  "The  ulti- 
mate particles  of  matter  are  endued  with  inherent 
forces,  or  powers."  Afterward,  for  nearly  a  thou- 
sand years,  this  question  attracted  little  attention, 
being  of  no  immediate  profit  to  mankind,  until 
popularized  by  the  writings  of  the  Latin  poet  and 
philosopher,  Lucretius. 

The  doctrines  of  heathen  philosophers,  being 
deemed  adverse  to  those  of  the  Mosaic  cosmog- 
ony, were  opposed  by  ecclesiastical  rulers,  who 
persecuted  investigators  of  physical  science.  In 
the  year  1600,  they  burnt  Bruno,  in  Venice,  for 
republishing  the  doctrines  of  Lucretius,  and  im- 
prisoned Galileo,  in  the  year  1663,  f°r  teaching 
the  Copernican  theory  of  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  about  the  sun.  With  the  gradual  extension 
of  religious  freedom  in  modern  times,  philoso- 
phers ventured  to  make  researches  for  the  source 
of  natural  motive-power.  La  Place,  Descartes, 
Goethe,  Darwin,  Spencer,  Tyndall,  Huxley,  and 
others  have  published  various  theories,  ascribing 


CAUSE    OF    MOTION    NOT    MATERIAL.  3 

the  evolution  of  molecular  actions  to  self-motive 
and  self-directive  powers  in  matter,  generally 
recognized  as  Materialism.  The  popular  interest 
in  this  theory  appears  to  be  due  to  a  desire  for 
freedom  of  discussion  by  the  philosophers,  who 
claim  the  same  privilege  of  studying  the  revela- 
tions of  the  Divine  will  manifest  in  the  laws  that 
govern  the  material  world,  as  ecclesiastics  enjoy 
for  studying  the  revelations  of  the  same-  Divine 
wilt  in  the  government  of  the  spiritual  world. 

The  theory  of  the  Newtonian  Philosophy,  teach- 
ing the  incapability  of  lifeless  matter  to  put  itself 
in  motion,  is  discordant  with  popular  chemical  and 
materialistic  doctrines  of  the  existence  of  inherent 
self-motive  and  self-directive  powers  in  molecules. 
This  discordance,  at  the  outset,  opens  the  ques- 
tion of  the  original  source  of  natural  motive- 
power.  If,  according  to  the  laws  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  nothing  material  can  put  itself  in 
motion,  it  follows  as  a  logical  deduction  that  the 
original  cause  of  the  motion  of  matter  must  be 
immaterial.  In  tracing  out  the  original  source  of 
the  movements  of  all  matter  in  accordance  with 
the  primary  law  of  the  incapability  of  matter  to 
move  itself,  Mechanical  Philosophy  points,  as 
with  uplifted  finger,  to  an  immaterial  cause,  and 
affirms  the  words  of  the  Psalmist :  "  The  heavens 
declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament 
showeth  his  handy  work."  Consequently,  Me- 
chanical Philosophy  is  based  on  the  original 


4  INERTNESS    OF    MATTER. 

placing  of  matter  in   infinite  space  by  a  Placer, 
denoted  THEOS,  in  Greek.1 

Taking  no  theories  for  granted  without  exam- 
ination, our  investigations  will  begin  with  the 
primary  axiom  of  the  Newtonian  Philosophy, 
which  affirms 

THE     INCAPABILITY     OF     MATTER     AT    REST    TO    PUT 
ITSELF    IN    MOTION. 

The  belief  of  the  incapability  of  matter  to 
move  itself  is  confirmed  only  by  negative  proof, 
because  there  is  no  well-authenticated  case  on 
record,  from  time  immemorial,  of  the  self-motion 
of  any  matter.  Beginning  observations  in 
early  life,  children  are  so  accustomed  to  find 

1  The  present  popular  question  of  Materialism  does  not  appear  to  be 
based  on  a  denial  of  the  pre-existence  of  a  Placer,  or  THEOS,  but  on  the 
mode  of  the  original  placing  of  atoms  in  the  formation  of  the  worlds  in 
the  heavens,  and  of  plants  and  animals  on  earth,  denoted  "  Evolution." 
Zealous  materialists  even  profess  extraordinary  reverence  toward  a 
Supreme  Placer,  by  proposing  to  relieve  him  of  "the  labor  of  an  arti- 
ficer, working  after  the  human  model "  six  days  and  resting  the  seventh, 
while  making  the  earth.  They  suggest  the  labor-saving  plan  of  prima- 
rily endowing  atoms  with  sufficient  self-motive  and  self-directive  powers 
to  move  spontaneously,  and  fit  themselves  to  the  right  places  for  form- 
ing the  earth  and  producing  the  Evolution  of  plants  and  animals,  as 
they  apparently  do  in  forming  symmetrical  crystals.  As  expressly  stated 
by  an  eminent  materialist  in  a  sensational  address  delivered  at  Belfast, 
he  desires  "  the  right  of  free  discussion,  claimed  and  sustained  through 
tribulation  and  anguish,  inflicted  and  endured  in  darker  times  than  ours, 
but  always  resulting  in  immortal  victories,  which  Physical  Science  has 
won  for  the  race."  He  continues  :  — 

"The  human  mind,  with  the  yearnings  of  a  pilgrim  for  his  distant 
home,  recurs  to  the  mystery  from  which  it  has  emerged,  so  as  to  give 
unity  to  thought  and  faith.  When  this  is  done,  without  intolerance  and 
bigotry,  then,  casting  aside  all  the  restrictions  on  discussions  of  mate- 
rialism, I  affirm  this  will  be  the  field  for  the  noblest  exercise  of  the  facul- 
ties of  man."  "I  tell  you,  finally,  Science  claims  the  right  of  search. 


INERTNESS    OF    MATTER.  5 

their  playthings  remaining  at  rest  where  they  are 
placed,  that  if  found  elsewhere  they  ask,  "  Who 
moved  them  ? "  with  the  conviction  that  they 
could  not  have  moved  themselves.  Whenever 
any  portion  of  matter  is  seen  in  motion,  some 
external  cause  of  motion  is  looked  for.  From 
generation  to  generation,  these  observations  of 
the  inertness  of  matter  are  so  uniformly  con- 
firmed, without  a  single  instance  to  the  contrary, 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  inertness  of  matter,  and 
of  its  incapability  to  turn  aside  from  a  movement 
in  a  straight  line,  or  to  stop  itself,  is  adopted  as  an 
axiom  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  axiom  of  its  incapability  to  put 
itself  in  motion  is  adopted,  —  a  lack  of  proof  to 
the  contrary.  To  admit  the  existence  of  self- 
directive  powers  in  matter,  would  be  equivalent 
to  admitting  that  molecules  .have  volitions  and 
wills  of  their  own. 

The  stoppage  of  bodies  in  motion  is  always  the 
result  of  a  transfer  of  the  motion  to  other  bodies ; 
for  an  impulse  of  mechanical  force  is  as  inde- 
structible as  the  matter  to  which  it  is  imparted. 

The  theories  of  Lucretius  and  Eruno,  of  Darwin  and  Spencer,  may  be 
wrong.  Here  I  should  agree  with  you  ;  deeming  it,  indeed,  certain  that 
these  theories  will  undergo  modifications.  But  the  point  is,  whether 
right  or  wrong,  we  ask  the  freedom  to  discuss  them."  "It  is  by  an 
inscrutable  mystery  that  life  is  developed,  species  differentiated,  and 
mind  unfolded.  In  fact,  the  whole  process  of  Evolution  is  the  mani- 
festation of  a  power  absolutely  inscrutable  to  the  intellect  of  man. 
As  little  in  our  day,  as  in  the  days  of  Job,  can  man  by  searching  find, 
out  this  power.  There  is,  you  will  observe,  no  very  rank  materialism 
here."— TyndaWs  Belfast  Address. 


6  PROGRESSIVE    MOTION    OF    MATTER. 

Bodies  put  in  motion  in  free  space  continue  to 
move  ;  and  in  limited  space  they  move  until  they 
transfer  the  action  they  receive  to  other  matter. 
For  this  reason  the  axiom  is  adopted,  that  "  action 
and  reaction  are  equal,  and  in  opposite  directions," 
representing  simply  the  transfer  of  an  impulse. 

The  ever  onward  and  straight  progressive 
motion  of  matter,  in  transmitting  mechanical 
action  in  free  space,  is  manifested  by  light  from 
the  remotest  visible  stars ;  which  travels  continu- 
ously in  a  straight  line  during  a  thousand  years 
or  more,  before  reaching  the  earth.  The  con- 
tinuous progression  of  impulses  imparted  to  pas- 
sive matter  is  sportively  verified  by  children,  in 
setting  on  end  a  row  of  bricks,  or  blocks,  to  fall 
successively  one  on  another.  After  thus  testing, 
on  a  small  scale,  the  incapability  of  matter  put 
in  motion  to  stop  itself,  the  youthful  experimenter 
is  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  an  impulse 
imparted  by  a  touch  of  the  finger  would  continue 
travelling  around  the  world  and  come  back  to  his 
finger,  were  it  practicable  to  extend  the  row  of 
bricks  sufficiently. 

A  tidal  wave,  raised  by  an  earthquake  on  the 
coast  of  Japan,  as  stated  by  Professor  Bache, 
continued  steadily  progressing  across  the  broad 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  finally  dashed  against  the 
coast  of  America. 

The  regular  diffusion  of  an  impulse  of  mechan- 
ical force  is  also  practically  learned  by  casting 


DIFFUSION    OF   ACTION    BY   MATTER.  7 

pebbles  on  the  mirror-like  surface  of  a  calm  lake. 
The  action  is  diffused  in  every  direction  from  the 
central  point,  in  wave  rings,  that  continue  enlarg- 
ing successively,  until  the  original  impulse  "im- 
parted by  the  hand  to  the  pebble  spreads  to  all 
the  surrounding  shores.  These  illustrations  serve 
to  show  that  there  is  no  limitation  to  the  diffusion 
of  an  impulse ;  as  is  tested  on  a  sublime  scale  by  the 
infinite  extent  of  the  transmission  of  gravitating 
force  and  light  throughout  infinite  space.  These 
facts,  and  all  other  knowledge  of  the  external 
world,  being  obtained  by  the  instrumentality  of 
the  nerves  of  sensation,  there  is  consequently 

SLOW     PROGRESS     OF     SCIENCE     BY     EXPERIMENTAL 
INVESTIGATION. 

In  Europe,  the  earliest  attempts  to  learn  the 
properties  of  matter  were  made  with  crucibles 
and  alembics,  excited  by  heat  to  develop  re- 
actions. So  fearful  were  superstitious  people  of 
the  existence  of  mysterious  powers  and  evil  spir- 
its in  peculiar  kinds  of  substances,  that  exper- 
imenters were  obliged  to  work  in  secret  places 
to  find  out  the  real  properties  of  matter.  So 
occult  appeared  the  causes  of  the  behavior  of 
molecules  toward  each  other  in  uniting  inter- 
changeably, and  separating,  that  this  new  science 
was  denoted  "  Alchemy,"  from  the  Arabic  KIMIA, 
a  mystery.1 

1  Through  Arabia  and  Egypt  most  of  the  original  mathematical  and 
chemical  sciences  of  the  people  of  Asia  were  introduced  into  Greece 


8         SYSTEMATIC    STUDY    OF    PHYSICAL    SCIENCE. 


BEGINNING    OF   A    REFORM    IN    THE    SYSTEM    AND 
STUDY    OF    PHYSICAL    SCIENCE. 

To  check  the  torrent  of  popular  delusion  and 
belief  in  imponderable  agents  of  Nature,  and  of 
self-directive  powers  in  lifeless  matter,  the  philos- 
opher Bacon  took  a  bold  stand,  by  publishing  a 

and  Rome.  The  alchemists  long  labored  to  render  copper,  tin,  and  zinc 
so  freely  movable  by  melting  in  crucibles  as  to  bring  forth  hybrid  species, 
including  the  precious  metals,  gold  and  silver. 

A  Treatise  on  Alchemy,  published  in  1591,  and  "dedicated  to  the 
Queen  of  England  by  permission,"  allures  the  reader  to  learn  "The 
perfectest  way  concerning  the  right  means  of  making  the  philosopher's 
stone,  aurum  potabile,  and  other  useful  arts,"  —  all  written  in  poetical 
stanzas,  describing  "  the  twelve  gates  of  entrance  to  be  passed  through 
to  arrive  at  these  mysteries."  Such  a  work,  published  under  royal  pat- 
ronage, shows  the  rude  and  superstitious  state  of  physical  science  less 
than  three  hundred  years  ago. 

The  liquid  distilled  from  the  dripping  beaks  of  alembics  containing 
wine  was  supposed  to  be  "  the  Elixir  of  life,"  and  was  called  by  French 
alchemists  Eau  de  vie;  but  posterity  have  realized  that  it  has  proved  to 
myriads  the  water  of  death. 

When  the  French  experimenters  set  afloat  two  magnets  on  pieces  of 
cork  in  a  basin  of  water,  and  saw  them  sail  toward  each  other  and  join 
together,  they  gave  to  them  the  name  of  "  aim  ants"  —  lovers — as  de- 
scriptive of  their  mutual  affection. 

In  like  manner  the  alchemists,  or  chemists,  in  modern  phraseology, 
unable  to  comprehend  the  phenomena  of  heat,  light,  and  electricity, 
ascribed  them  to  "  three  imponderable  agents  of  Nature ; "  to  each  of 
which  they  gave  the  same  name  as  to  the  several  effects  produced  by 
them ;  thus  confusedly  blending  ideas  of  the  causes  and  of  the  effects  of 
•the  action  denoted  heat,  light,  and  electricity.  This  erroneous  system 
is  still  continued.  When  a  child  asks  the  cause  of  the  beautiful  pen- 
cillings  of  glittering  frost  on  the  window-panes  in  a  wintry  morning, 
representing  fern-leaves  and  fanciful  figures,  the  answer  to  this  early 
philosophical  inquiry  commonly  ascribes  the  work  to  "Jack  Frost;  "  who 
is  ever  afterward  remembered  as  one  of  the  mysterious  wonder-working 
"  Agents  of  Nature." 

A  belief  in  the  existence  of  supernatural  agents,  also,  is  early  im- 
pressed on  youthful  minds  by  fairy  tales,  and  by  ascribing  mysterious 
powers  to  amulets  and  rings.  In  the  witch  scene,  in  "  Macbeth,"  Shakes- 


THE    INDUCTIVE    SYSTEM.  9 

work  entitled  "  Novum  Organum,"  or  a  new  sys- 
tematic organization  of  physical  science,  based  on 
facts  and  reasoning  from  analogy. 

The  patient  and  careful  labor  requisite  for  car- 
rying out  this  inductive  system,  from  one  verified 
fact  to  another,  dispels  all  romance  in  the  pur- 
suit of  physical  science,  and  reduces  it  to  a  mathe- 
matical precision  very  distasteful  to  the  ardent 
and  speculative  spirit  of  the  age. 

With  no  inducement  of  pecuniary  profit  to 
tempt  students  to  a  laborious  course  of  original 
scientific  investigations,  few  can  afford  the  sacri- 
fice ;  and  most  prefer  to  imagine,  rather  than  to 
work.  Thousands  indulge  in  physical  specula- 
tions, where  one  is  found  plodding  slowly  by  prac- 
tical verifications.  The  imaginative  Goethe  wrote 
on  Materialism,  commencing  with  the  apology, 
that  "  any  theory  of  the  cause  of  movements  of 
matter  is  better  than  none." 

peare  represents  popular  delusions  and  beliefs  in  the  existence  of  mys- 
terious powers  in  the  various  substances  added  to  the  bubbling  caldron. 
Romances  continue  to  fascinate  the  lively  imagination  of  childhood, 
leaving  their  impress  in  after  life,  and  preparing  the  popular  mind  for 
believing  in  spiritual  communications,  clairvoyance,  and  supernatural 
powers.  So  strong  was  the  hold  of  this  popular  belief  in  former  days, 
that  grave  ecclesiastics,  legislators,  and  judges  established  and  executed 
laws  for  inflicting  the  punishment  of  imprisonment  and  death  on  persons 
accused  of  "sorcery  and  witchcraft."  Thousands  have  been  impris- 
oned and  put  to  death  in  Europe  for  alleged  communications  with  evil 
spirits ;  and  even  the  stern  Puritans  of  Massachusetts  hung  numerous 
women  and  men  for  witchcraft. 

All  these  pernicious  results  and  superstitious  fears  of  evil  spirits  and 
supernatural  powers  are  dispelled  by  the  study  of  the  exact  facts  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  which  demonstrates  the  passiveness  of  all  matter, 
and  its  subjection  to  material  and  mechanical  laws. 


IO  DISCORDANT    DOCTRINES. 

Impatient  of  the  slow  progress  in  discovering 
the  cause  of  the  movements  of  molecules  toward 
and  from  one  another,  an  excellent  chemist  —  Pro- 
fessor Graham  —  boldly  came  forward  to  settle  the 
popular  chemical  theory  of  the  existence  of  in- 
herent self-motive  power  in  molecules,  by  joining 
issue  with  the  mechanical  theory  of  the  incapa- 
bility of  matter  to  move  itself.  He  asks  earnestly, 
"  Which  shall  yield  to  the  other?"1 

With  the  hope  of  harmonizing  this  discord 
between  the  two  sister  sciences  of  chemistry  and 
mechanics,  the  writer  of  these  pages  devoted  much 
labor  to  researches  on  this  subject,  and  published 
the  result,  in  the  year  1851,  in  a  treatise  entitled, 
"The  Philosophy  of  the  Mechanics  of  Nature, 
and  of  the  Source  and  Modes  of  Transmission  of 
Natural  Motive  Power."2 

Failing  to  discover  any  self-originating  cause  of 
motion  in  terrestrial  matter,  the  writer  was  led 
on  to  take  a  broader  view  of  the  passive  functions 
of  our  planet,  as  subordinate  to  universal  laws,  and 
as  being  a  minute  working-part  of  the  mechanism 
of  the  solar  system.  In  the  continual  swift-revolv- 
ing movements  of  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  great  planets  and  asteroids,  there  is  an  actu- 
ally existing  momentum,  or  moving  force,  amply 
sufficient  to  sustain  all  the  relative  movements  of 
terrestrial  molecules  and  bodies,  and  requiring 
only  to  be  traced  out  in  accordance  with  universal 

1  Graham's  Chemistry.  2  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 


SOURCE    OF    NATURAL    MOTIVE    POWER.  II 

laws  of  transmission  through  the  medium  of  a 
universally  diffused  electric  ether.  With  this 
great  fact  before  us,  of  the  existence  of  an  infi- 
nite extent  of  natural  motive-power  in  continual 
action  in  the  heavens,  we  may  well  discard  all 
speculations  on  the  existence  of  inherent  self- 
motive  and  self-directive  powers  in  lifeless  matter, 
and  also  about  the  mode  in  which  the  solar 
.system  was  originally  created,  and  plants  and 
animals  placed  on  our  planet;  and  turn  our  at- 
tention strictly  to  the  potentialities  of  this  mo- 
tive force. 


12  MOMENTUM    OF   THE    PLANETS. 


CHAPTER    II. 

MOMENTUM     OF    THE     PLANETS    A   SOURCE    OF     NATURAL 

MOTIVE-POWER. ESTIMATES    OF   PLANETARY    FORCES, 

MAGNITUDES,  AND  REVOLUTIONS. 

"  Look  downward  on  that  Globe,  whose  hither  side, 
With  light  from  hence,  though  but  reflected,  shines  : 
That  place  is  earth,  the  seat  of  man." 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

JV/TECHANICAL  Philosophy,  like  the  angel 
described  by  Milton,  lifts  the  student  to 
the  central  orb  of  the  solar  system,  "the  gate 
of  light,"  to  take  a  preliminary  view  of  the  sub- 
lime extent  of  the  universe. 

To  an  observer  of  our  planet,  stationed  on 
the  planet  Venus,  the  reflection  of  sunshine  ren- 
ders the  apparently  dull  surface  of  the  earth  as 
brilliant  as  Venus  appears  to  us  in  the  evening 
sky.  The  magnitude  of  our  earth,  great  and 
important  as  it  appears  to  us,  is  only  ~  part  of 
the  magnitude  of  Jupiter,  and  less  than  ^  part 
of  the  magnitude  of  the  nearly  invisible  planet 
Neptune,  the  existence  of  which  was  discovered 
only  a  few  years  ago. 

So  numerous  are  the  stellar  suns  to  other  sys- 
tems of  worlds  in  infinite  space,  that  the  first 
sight  of  their  glorious  splendor,  revealed  by  a 


MULTITUDE  OF  SUNS  AND  WORLDS.      13 

modern  telescope,  overwhelms  the  observer  with 
awe  and  admiration. 

Guillemin,  an  eminent  writer  on  astronomy, 
estimates  that  seventy-seven  millions  of  stellar 
suns  are  visible  from  our  earth  by  means  of 
improved  modern  telescopes.  Allowing  to  each 
of  these  stellar  suns  the  same  number  of  worlds 
that  revolve  about  our  sun,  it  is  calculated  that  ten 
thousand  millions  of  planetary  worlds  exist  within 
the  range  of  telescopic  vision  from  our  earth ;  and 
are  therefore  included  in  "our  cluster"  of  worlds 
in  the  heavens.  This  visible  portion  of  the  material 
universe  suggests  the  occupancy  of  infinite  space 
by  similar  clusters  beyond  clusters,  in  boundless 
progression.  That  our  sun  and  the  distant  stellar 
suns  are  in  rapid  motion  is  verified  by  observa- 
tions of  astronomers,  who  have  discovered  that 
some  of  them  are  actually  revolving  about  one 
another  in  double  systems,  like  the  great  stellar 
sun  Sirius;  which  is  more  than  twelve  hundred 
fold  greater  than  our  sun. 

The  similarity  of  the  construction  of  the  other 
worlds  in  the  heavens,  and  the  prevalence  of  the 
same  universal  laws  governing  their  existence, 
are  manifest  by  the  recent  revelations  of  the 
spectrum  analysis.  The  neighboring  planet 
Mars  is  so  distinctly  seen  by  modern  telescopes, 
that  the  outlines  of  a  geographical  map  of  it 
have  been  delineated,  showing  continents,  oceans, 
and  snow-white  polar  regions.  These  observa- 


14       CELESTIAL    AND    TERRESTRIAL    ANALOGIES. 

tions  confirm  a  belief  that  all  the  planetary 
worlds  are  adapted  for  abodes  of  intelligences, 
and  for  promoting  the  happiness  of  sentient 
beings. 

The  original  placing  of  the  revolving  worlds 
in  the  heavens,  being  ascribed  by  Mechanical 
Philosophy  to  an  immaterial  First  Cause,  is  be- 
yond the  reach  of  physical  investigation;  which 
therefore  begins  with  the  manifest  facts  at- 
tending their  actual  existence  and  movements. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  an  engineer  to  know  who 
invented  the  steam-engine,  or  how  and  when  it 
was  originally  made,  before  he  can  proceed  to 
study  the  general  principles  that  govern  its  op- 
eration. Its  actual  construction  and  functions 
reveal  the  science  and  ability  of  the  maker,  and 
his  purpose. 

The  mechanism  of  the  solar  system  being  far 
beyond  the  possibility  of  immediate  examination, 
Sir  John  Herschel  points  out  to  students  "  the 
surest  guide  for  direction,  by  reasoning  from  an- 
alogy of  celestial  to  terrestrial  mechanics ;  "  both 
being  alike  governed  by  universal  laws.  Professor 
Proctor  says :  "  Terrestrial  analogies  afford  a  very 
sure  guide  in  the  midst  of  the  many  perplexities, 
which  the  study  of  the  worlds  around  us  presents 
to  our  contemplation."  After  recognizing  the  law 
that  matter  put  in  motion  cannot  stop  itself,  the 
student  realizes  that  the  vast  masses  of  the  re- 
volving planets  serve  as  balance-wheels  to  retain 


EXTENT  OF  PLANETARY  FORCE.        15 

and  equalize  the  transmission  of  the  impulses 
originally  imparted  to  them,  with  amply  sufficient 
power,  if  properly  transferred,  to  produce  all  the 
relative  movements  and  states  of  rest  of  terrestrial 
matter. 

ESTIMATE    OF    PLANETARY    FORCE. 

The  extent  of  motive -power  embodied  in  a 
mass  of  matter  in  motion  is  calculated  by  multi- 
plying the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  by  the 
weight  in  pounds.  The  resultant  force  is  de- 
noted momentum,  and  is  expressed  in  "foot- 
pounds." 

The  weight  of  the  mass  of  the  earth  is  esti- 
mated at  6,069,005,178,000,000,000,000  tons,  in- 
cluding the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.1 

The  orbital  velocity  of  the  globe  of  the  earth  be- 
ing 19  miles  per  second,  or  6,019,200  feet  per  min- 
ute, the  orbital  momentum  of  the  earth  is  therefore 
about  2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  (two 
octillions)  horse-power,  according  to  the  Ameri- 
can and  French  system  of  numeration.2 

In  addition,  there  is  also  to  be  estimated  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  rotating  force  of  the  globe  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis,  24,000  miles  in  circumference,  with 

1  Guillemin's  Astronomy,  p.  103. 

2  It  appears  that  the  English  system  of  numeration  estimates  1,000,- 
000,000,000  (one  million  millions)  as  one  billion,  and  each  higher  denomi- 
nation a  million  times  the  one  preceding. 

The  French  and  American  system  estimates  1,000,000,000  (one  thous- 
and millions)  as  one  &7/z'0#,  and  each  higher  denomination 'a  thousand 
times  the  one  preceding. 


1 6  .SWIFT   MOTION    OF    PLANETS. 

a  surface  velocity  of  more  than  15  miles  per 
minute  at  the  equator. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  our  earth  is  one 
of  the  smaller  planets,  being  only  -^~  part  of  the 
magnitude  of  Jupiter,  and  that  there  are  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  planets  and  asteroids 
all  swiftly  revolving  as  working  parts  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  solar  system. 

The  vast  planet  Jupiter,  89,000  miles  in  diam- 
eter, rotates  in  io}4  hours,  and  has  a  surface 
velocity  of  nearly  450  miles  per  minute. 

The  annexed  table  shows  the  comparative 
magnitude  of  our  earth  and  the  other  planets  of 
the  solar  system,  and  also  their  relative  veloc- 
ities :  — 


MASSES    AND    VELOCITIES    OF    PLANETS. 


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1 8       CONSERVATION    OF    FORCE    BY    MOMENTUM. 

The  surface  velocity  of  the  rotation  of  the  sun 
is  about  i#  miles  per  second. 

The  name  of  "  planet "  is  borrowed  from  the 
Latin  word  PLANO,  —  /  wander.  The  planets  are 
systematic  wanderers,  continually  circling  about 
a  common  centre  in  harmonious  order,  and  with 
velocities  diminished  in  proportion  to  their  in- 
creased distances  therefrom. 

The  greatest  comparative  quantity  of  matter 
employed  in  the  construction  of  a  steam-engine 
is  embodied  in  the  ponderous  balance-wheel;  in 
the  momentum  of  which  the  impulses  imparted 
are  retained,  to  be  uniformly  transmitted.  For 
the  same  reason  a  great  quantity  of  matter  is 
embodied  in  the  revolving  orbs  of  the  planets,  to 
receive  and  continuously  transmit  the  impulses 
primarily  imparted  to  them  as  the  source  of  the 
natural  motive-power,  transferred  continually  by 
the  medium  of  a  universal  ether;  which  serves  as 
a  substitute  for  connecting  bands  and  shaftings 
in  the  mechanism  of  the  solar  system. 

POPULAR     IDEAS     OF     THE     REVOLVING     MOVEMENTS 
OF    THE    PLANETS. 

The  supposition  generally  prevails  that  the 
only  design  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  is  to 
cause  the  day  and  night  to  succeed  each  other, 
for  affording  timely  rest  for  animal  refreshment; 
and  that  the  yearly  orbital  revolutions  are  de- 
signed only  to  bring  about  changes  of  the  sea- 
sons, with  seedtime  and  harvest. 


VIBRATIONS    TRANSMIT    MUSIC.  1 9 

Pythagoras  fancifully  suggested  that  the  move- 
ments of  the  planets  produce  harmonious  sounds 
to  time  their  marches  through  the  sky,  with  tones 
varying  in  accordance  with  their  greater  distances 
from  the  sun.  Hence  originated  the  theory  of 
"the  music  of  the  spheres."  Job  refers  to  this 
idea  in  the  words,  "  When  the  morning  stars 
sang  together,  and  all  the  sons  of  God  shouted 
for  joy."  Shakespeare  recurs  to  this  theory  in 
"  The  Merchant  of  Venice,"  —  "  There  's  not  an 
orb  of  all  which  thou  beholdest,  that  does  not 
in  its  movement  like  an  angel  sing."  Addison 
describes  the  stars,  "  For  ever  singing  as  they 
shine." 

The  same  electric  medium,  that  transmits  vibra- 
tions as  light,  transmits  musical  sounds,  as  tested 
by  telegraph  wires  connected  with  telephones ; 
and  were  the  nerves  of  the  ear  as  delicately  sen- 
sitive as  the  nerves  of  the  eye,  we  might  hear, 
as  well  as  see,  the  heavenly  orbs  timing  their 
marches  by  harmonious  measures  through  the 
sky. 

UTILIZATION    OF    AN    INVISIBLE    MEDIUM    FOR   TRANS- 
MITTING   MECHANICAL   ACTION. 

Two  thousand  years  before  Newton  suggested 
the  necessity  of  a  connecting  material  medium 
between  the  heavenly  bodies,  to  hold  them  to- 
gether in  circling  orbits,  the  poet  Homer,  wit- 
nessing the  glittering  links  of  lightning  suspended 


2O  VIBRATIONS    TRANSMIT    IMPULSES 

between  the  dark  clouds  and  the  earth,  expressed 
this  idea  in  Jupiter's  address  to  the  council  of 
gods : — 

"  Let  down  our  golden,  everlasting  chain, 
Whose  strong  embrace  holds  heaven  to  earth  and  main."1 

The  ancient  philosophers  taught  the  existence 
of  an  etherial  medium  occupying  the  space  inter- 
vening between  the  grosser  particles  of  bodies  ; 
and  for  many  ages  after  the  doctrine  was  accepted, 
and  transmitted  to  later  times  as  "  the  theory  of 
phlogiston;"  —  a  term  derived  from  the  Greek 
PHLOGOS,  flame.  With  modifications,  the  doc- 
trine of  a  universal  ether  still  prevails,  and  is 
confirmed  by  the  conclusions  of  the  most  acute 
observers,  as  well  as  those  of  the  most  profound 
intellects  of  our  day. 

As  to  the  nature  of  this  ether,  all  we  know  is 
its  capability  of  transmitting  the  slightest  impulse 
of  mechanical  force.  Beyond  this,  we  must  make 
the  same  acknowledgment  of  the  limitation  of 
human  powers  of  perception  as  Faraday  makes 
in  reference'  to  the  essential  nature  of  all  kinds  of 
matter,  when  he  affirms,  "  All  we  know  of  matter 
is  its  power  of  transmitting  action  ;  "  or,  as  does 
another  eminent  writer,  in  treating  of  molecules 
as  merely  "centres  of  forces"  admitting  them  to 
be  too  minute  to  be  distinctly  recognized. 

Passing  by,  then,  all  speculations  as  to  the  na- 
ture and  constitution  of  the  universal  ether,  it  is 

1  Iliad,  book  viii. 


AND    PRODUCE    TERRESTRIAL    PHENOMENA.       21 

sufficient  to  recognize  the  fact,  that  it  is  so  pre- 
eminently sensitive  to,  and  active  in,  the  trans* 
mission  of  what  men  call  electric,  magnetic,  and 
galvanic  force,  that  we  are  well  warranted  in  call- 
ing it  "  electric  ether,"  even  if  it  be  not  in  its 
essence  what  men  call  the  "  electric  fluid  "  itself. 

Facts  demonstrate  that  the  impulse  from  the 
hand,  applied  to  turn  the  crank  of  a  Holtz  elec- 
trical machine,  disturbs  and  puts  in  motion  a 
material  medium,  that  transmits  the  impulses  it 
receives  in  various  ways,  even  to  representing 
a  little  world  in  miniature.  A  dawning  light 
appears,  rivalling  the  splendor  of  the  rising  sun. 
A  breeze  from  a  pointed  wire  on  the  conductor 
transmits  sufficient  force  to  turn  a  little  paper 
windmill,  and  light  paper-figures  of  men  and 
women  are  excited  to  rise  up  from  repose  and 
dance.  Rose-colored  coruscations  of  the  aurora 
and  meteoric  shooting-stars  are  represented  in  a 
glass  tube  exhausted  of  air.  Flashes  like  light- 
ning, and  sounds  as  of  thunder,  are  produced  by 
the  discharge  of  a  coated  jar,  and  combustibles 
are  fired.  Particles  of  solid  bodies  are  scattered 
into  vapors,  and  those  of  water  decomposed  and 
reunited,  representing  chemical  action.  Even  the 
mechanical  functions  of  the  living  human  body 
are  excited  by  the  impulse.  For  when  the  ma- 
chine puts  in  motion  the  electric  ether  through 
the  five  different  arrangements  of  sensorial  nerves, 
so  as  to  reach  the  tribunal  of  human  intelligence 


22  ELECTRIC    VIBRATIONS    OF    NERVES. 

in  the  brain,  the  effect  of  the  mechanical  action 
imparted  by  the  hand  to  the  cylinder  is  recog- 
nized by  as  many  different  names  as  there  are 
lines  of  telegraphic  nerves  leading  to  the  brain. 
An  identical  electro-mechanical  action  transmit- 
ted through  the  nerves  of  the  eyes  is  denoted 
LIGHT  ;  through  the  nerves  of  feeling,  HEAT  ; 
through  the  nerves  of  the  nose,  ODOR  ;  through 
the  nerves  of  the  tongue,  TASTE  ;  and  through  the 
nerves  of  the  ear,  SOUND. 


SPACE    OCCUPIED    BY    ELECTRIC    MEDIUM. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ALL  SPACE  NOT  OCCUPIED  BY  OTHER  MATTER  IS  OCCU- 
PIED BY  A  UNIVERSALLY  DIFFUSED  AND  INVISIBLE 
ELECTRIC  MEDIUM. 

TT7HILE  it  is  popularly  supposed  that  a  vacuum 
results  from  the  exhaustion  of  the  air  be- 
neath a  glass  bell  by  an  air-pump,  the  following 
experiment  will  show  that  this  supposed  vacuum  is 
pervaded  by  the  electric  ether:  — 

A  brass  knob  connected  with  a  conducting  wire 
is  arranged  above 
another  similar 
knob,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  i  ;  and 
the  excitation 
from  an  electrical 
machine  is  used 
to  induce  a  cur- 
rent through  the 
void  space  in  the 
jar.  On  turning 
the  crank  of  the 
machine,  a  cas- 
cade of  lambent 

flames        appears  Fif.  s. 

pouring  down  from  the  upper  knob. 


24  NO    VOID    SPACE    IN    THE    UNIVERSE. 

If  a  long  glass  tube  be  used,  the  coruscations 
are  extended  in  rose-colored  flashes,  resembling 
those  of  the  aurora  borealis,  above  the  earth's 
atmosphere. 

By  admitting  a  little  air  into  the  tube,  to  rep- 
resent the  partial  exhaustion  of  the  air  in  the 
upper  regions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere,  the 
electric  discharge  is  impeded,  and  condensed  into 
balls  of  fire,  resembling  meteors,  or  shooting-stars, 
with  their  minute  trains. 

These  experiments  show  that  there  is  really  no 
void  space  between  the  worlds  of  matter  in  the 
heavens,  and  that  there  is  a  connecting  material 
medium  between  them,  capable  of  transmitting 
mechanical  action  and  reaction  with  the  velocity 
of  light,  as  manifest  in  the  continual  action  of 
sunshine  and  of  so-called  gravitation,  between  all 
the  heavenly  bodies. 

THE     MINUTE     SPACES     BETWEEN     ATOMS     PERVADED 
BY    THE    ELECTRIC    ETHER. 

The  reciprocal  action  between  magnets  in 
space  exhausted  of  air,  denoted  a  vacuum,  and 
between  the  component  molecules  of  all  solid 
and  liquid  bodies,  denoted  "  molecular  force," 
manifests  the  existence  of  a  material  medium 
between  them,  capable  of  transmitting  impulses. 
Every  disturbance  of  the  relative  positions  of 
adjacent  bodies,  or  molecules,  simultaneously  dis- 
turbs and  puts  in  motion  the  electric  medium 


AN    ALL-PERVADING   ELECTRIC    ETHER.  25 

intervening  between  them,  as  is  manifest  by  strik- 
ing two  stones  together,  by  abrasion  of  steel  by 
a  flint  or  emery-wheel,  and  by  crushing  pieces 
of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  even  dry  lumps  of  sugar 
in  an  iron  mortar,  whereby  the  interior  appears 
filled  with  electric  sparks. 

Even  the  aeriform  particles  of  the  atmosphere 
manifest  similar  electric  excitation  when  mechani- 
cally compressed  beneath  a  piston  in  a  small 
cylinder,  whereby  tinder  may  be  ignited;  as  was 
often  done  before  the  invention  of  friction 
matches. 

On  beholding  the  bright  flashes  within  a  cleft 
of  dry  wood  suddenly  laid  open  by  his  axe,  a 
pioneer  in  a  Western  forest  once  paused  to  ex- 
press to  the  writer  his  belief  that  "  fire  exists  in 
wood,  and  comes  out  in  burning." 

The    ready   permeation    by    the    electric   ether 
even  of  non-conducting 
glass,  is  shown  by  hold- 
ing a  plate  of  glass  be- 
tween   an    excited   con- 
ductor, A  (Fig.   2),  and 
the  knob  of  a  conduct- 
ing   wire,    B.      As   ex- 
hibited in   the  drawing,  every  electric  spark  ap- 
pears to  pass  instantaneously  through  the  plate  of 
glass,  as  if  it  were  perforated  by  it. 

This  experiment  illustrates  the  transmission 
of  electro-mechanical  action  through  the  electric 


26  DISCOVERY    OF    ELECTRIC    EXCITATION. 

ether  pervading  the  particles  of  transparent  bod- 
ies, and  confirms  the  identity  of  solar  light  and 
of  electric  action;  and  shows  that  the  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  glass  are  occupied  by  the 
electric  ether  as  a  medium  of  communication. 

ORIGINAL     SCIENTIFIC    DISCOVERY    OF    ELECTRIC 
EXCITATION. 

The  ancient  Greek  philosophers  appear  to  have 
been  the  earliest  to  notice  and  record  the  exist- 
ence of  the  universal  electric  medium,  and  the 
mode  of  its  excitation  in  obedience  to  mechanical 
impulses  imparted  to  it.  On  rubbing  pieces  of 
amber,  bright  sparks  appeared ;  and  for  this  rea- 
son the  Greeks  gave  the  descriptive  name  of 
ELEKTRON,  sunshiny,  to  this  peculiar  resinous 
substance.  This  term  is  borrowed  from  another 
Greek  word,  ELEKTOR  ;  which  is  defined,  "  The 
sunshine  that  excites  men  to  rise  from  their  beds." 
The  English  term,  "electricity,"  derived  from 
this  Greek  word,  therefore,  literally  means  "  sun- 
shine." 

Pythagoras  taught  that  this  same  ELECTOR,  or 
sunshine,  is  manifest  in  the  splendor  of  lightning ; 
the  heat,  or  burning  power,  of  which  is  denoted 
KERAUNOS  in  the  Greek. 

Hippocrates,  another  Greek  philosopher,  taught 
"  the  existence  of  a  universally  diffused  ether, 
which  in  motion  constitutes  elementary  fire,  and 
silently  actuates  and  animates  all  things." 


MEDIUM    BETWEEN    MIND   AND    MATTER.  27 

Still  another  Greek  philosopher,  Galen,  taught 
the  subserviency  of  the  electric  ether  as  a  gen- 
eral medium  of  communication  between  material 
bodies  and  the  immaterial  mind,  or  soul;  and 
even  between  mind  and  mind.  He  foreshadowed 
modern  discoveries  in  electro-telegraphy  in  the 
following  memorable  worda :  — 

"  Admitting  the  soul  to  be  immaterial,  it  hath 
for  its  immediate  tunicle  a  surrounding  ether,  or 
luciform  vehicle  ;  by  the  intervention  whereof  it 
moveth  bodies,  and  is  reciprocally  reacted  upon 
therefrom.  This  tunicle  of  the  soul,  whether  it 
be  called  pure  ether,  luciform  vehicle,  or  animal 
spirit,  seemeth  to  be  that  which  is  moved  by  the 
volitions  to  act  on  the  grosser  organs,  or  muscles, 
as  may  be  determined  by  the  soul ;  from  which 
the  ether  immediately  receives  impulses,  and  in 
which  the  original  moving  power  truly  and  appro- 
priately resides." 

This  supposition  of  an  old  philosopher  appears 
to  be  verified  by  every  step  of  progress  towards 
the  mysterious  connection  between  the  immaterial 
mind  and  the  material  mechanism  in  which  it  is 
temporarily  embodied.  It  is  certainly  a  beautiful 
as  well  as  philosophical  idea,  to  imagine  the  mind, 
or  spirit,  enthroned  in  "  a  pure  ether,"  —  as  if  too 
refined  for  immediate  contact  with  the  gross  mat- 
ter of  the  brain. 

This  "  pure  ether,  or  luciform  vehicle,"  is  now 
artificially  employed  in  electric  telegraphs  for 


28  MEDIUM    BETWEEN    MIND    AND    MIND. 

holding  communications  between  mind  and  mind 
all  over  the  earth ;  and  is  naturally  employed  in 
transmitting  the  twinkling  telegraphic  communi- 
cations which  pass  between  the  distant  stars  and 
the  earth. 

HEAT     AND     LIGHT     TRANSMITTED     BY     MECHANICAL 
IMPULSES    IMPARTED    TO    THE    ELECTRIC    ETHER. 

Every  impulse  that  moves  portions  of  matter 
disturbs  the  surrounding  electric  medium,  and  is 
transmitted  to  the  human  brain  through  the  con- 
ducting nerves,  to  produce  sensations  of  heat  and 
light  when  sufficiently  intense.  Otto  Guericke 
( the  inventor  of  the  air-pump ).  and  Volta  took 
the  lead  in  experimentally  verifying  the  fact,  that 
every  movement  of  one  body  near  another  dis- 
turbs and  puts  in  motion  the  electric  ether  in 
both  bodies,  diffusing  the  action  in  various  ways ; 
as  by  vibrating  undulations  of  the  electric  medium 
to  reach  the  brain  through  the  sensorial  nerves, 
recognized  as  the  sensations  of  light  and  heat, 
and  by  movements  of  light  bodies,  such  as  pith- 
balls,  flexible  threads,  or  hairs,  gold  leaf,  &c. 
From  the  ready  movement  of  all  such  light  bodies 
used  as  tests  of  electric  excitation,  they  are  descrip- 
tively denoted  ELECTROSCOPES  ;  from  the  Greek 
words  ELEKTOR,  solar  action,  and  SKOPEO,  / 
behold. 

A  simple  mode  of  verifying  electric  dis- 
turbances by  the  movements  of  bodies  was 


MEDIUM    OF    MECHANICAL    ACTION. 


29 


originally  adopted  by  moving  two  metallic  plates, 

held       by      insulating 

glass  handles  (Fig.  3), 

which,     after     contact 

and   separation,   excite 

movements  of   electro-  Fift  3< 

scopes. 

To  intensify  the  excitation  of  the  plate,  a  cake 
of  sealing 
wax,  c,  ex- 
cited by  fric- 
tion with  fur, 
is  commonly 
used,  as  rep- 
resented by 
Fig.  4.  Hold- 
ing the  plate  c 
D  by  the  in- 
sulating glass  Fig.  4. 
handle  K,  and  reaching  the  finger  toward  the 
metallic  knob  N,  a  spark  is  seen  to  leap  through 
the  air  from  N  to  the  finger,  when  the  plate  D  is 
brought  near  and  in  contact  with  c ;  on  lifting 
the  plate  and  again  bringing  the  finger  toward  N, 
a  similar  bright  spark  leaps  back  to  the  plate. 

This  simple  apparatus,  by  the  alternate  move- 
ment of  the  upper  plate  toward  and  from  the 
lower  plate,  produces  such  dazzling  sparks,  that 
the  original  inventor  gave  to  it  the  name  of 
ELECTROPHORUS  ;  from  ELEKTOR,  sunshine,  and 
PHOREO,  7  bring. 


30  MEDIUM    DEVELOPING    SUNSHINE. 

This  experiment  practically  demonstrates  that 
mechanical  action,  applied  to  move  bodies  toward 
and  from  one  another,  is  capable  of  producing 
light  and  heat,  identical  with  sunshine. 

While  the  upper  plate  rests  on  the  lower  plate, 
the  electric  ether  remains  in  an  electrostatic  con- 
dition in  the  plates,  developing  no  action  until 
they  are  moved  asunder,  when  a  spark  is  ob- 
tainable by  lifting  the  upper  plate.  This  ever- 
ready  spark  may  be  conveniently  employed  for 
kindling  gas-lights,  by  directing  it  through  the 
jet  of  gas.1 

The  most  regular  and  systematic  mode  of  mov- 
ing bodies,  for  disturbing  and  putting  in  motion 
the  electric  medium,  is  by  axial  and  orbital  revo- 
lutions opposite  to  each  other,  —  as  naturally  em- 
ployed in  the  daily  and  annual  revolutions  of  the 
planets  of  the  solar  system,  and  in  the  rotations 
of  artificial  electric  and  magneto-electric  machines. 

Every  impulse  of  mechanical  force  applied  to 
rotate  an  inductive  electric  machine,  or  a  mag- 
neto-electric machine,  develops  the  excitation 
denoted  "  electric  light  and  heat,"  —  the  equiva- 
lent of  sunshine.  The  mechanical  force  of  water- 
falls, of  the  winds  and  waves  of  the  sea,  and 

1  The  "static'1''  condition  of  forces  is  commonly  considered  to  be 
their  state  of  absolute  rest ;  but  so  far  is  this  idea  from  being  true, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  a  double  extent  of  oppositely  directed  impulses  is 
requisite  for  the  counterbalancing  of  forces.  When  any  disturbance 
of  the  equilibrium  is  produced,  then  the  predominant  force  develops  a 
resultant  dynamic  action.  To  these  resultant  forces  may  be  traced  most 
if  not  all  of  the  relative  movements  of  terrestrial  matter,  as  will  hereafter 
more  fully  appear. 


CONVERSION    OF    POWER    INTO    LIGHT,    ETC.       3! 

animal  motive-power,  may  all  be  converted  into 
electrical  light  and  heat  by  being  applied  to  turn 
magneto-electric  machines,  —  such  as  are  used 
in  modern  lighthouses  to  illumine  dark  seas  and 
headlands  with  the  splendor  of  sunshine.  The 
mechanical  force  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides 
on  sea-coasts  is  adequate  to  rotate  a  sufficient 
number  of  magneto-electric  machines  to  illumi- 
nate all  the  bordering  shores  ;  and  that  of  the 
waters  of  Niagara  to  illumine  the  great  cities  of 
the  world. 


32       ROTATION    EXCITES    THE    ELECTRIC    ETHER. 

The  actual  contact  and  friction  of  the  surfaces 
of  all  bodies  excite  heat  and  light,  as  is  familiarly 
known;  and  a  similar  contact  and  friction  of  a 
rubber  on  the  surface  of  rotated  cylinders  of  glass, 
sulphur,  and  resinous  substances,  were  originally 
employed  for  exciting  electricity,  as  represented  by 
Fig.  5.  But  the  most  effective  kind  of  electri- 
cal machine  is 
the  invention 
of  Professor 
Holtz,  Fig. 
6 ;  with  one 
glass  plate 
revolving  op- 
posite to  an- 

Fig.'~  other,  without 

contact,  and  with  a  space  of  air  intervening  be- 
tween them,  as  between  the  earth  and  the  sun. 
Rows  of  pointed  wires  are  arranged  in  the  usual 
way  to  intercept  and  conduct  away  the  electric 
currents.  By  means  of  this  machine,  bright  elec- 
tric flashes  are  seen  to  pass  nearly  two  feet  through 
the  air,  in  a  zigzag  course. 

Another  efficient  mode  of  disturbing  and  put- 
ting in  motion  the  electric  ether  in  currents  was 
originally  devised  by  Professor  Faraday,  who  had 
recourse  to  the  use  of  excited  magnets  to  induce 
excitation  of  more  powerful  electric  action.  He 
used  a  spiral  coil  of  wire  to  be  slipped  down 
over  the  pole  of  a  magnet,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7, 


ROTATION    OF    BODIES    NEAR    MAGNETS.  33 

with  the  ends  of  the  wire  connected  with  a  gold- 
leaf  electroscope,  D.  When  the  coil  E  is  slipped 
down  over  the  pole 
of  a  horse-shoe  mag- 
net, s,  the  electric 
ether  pervading  the 
spiral  coil  A,  being 
put  in  motion  through 
the  circuit  of  the  wire 
ABE,  traverses  the 
strip  of  gold-leaf  be- 
tween the  two  verti- 
cal poles  of  another  Fig.  7. 
magnet,  N  s,  whereby  the  flexible  gold-leaf  is  moved 
toward  the  spectator  during  the  continued  descent 
of  the  spiral  coil  A.  An  opposite  deflection  of  the 
gold-leaf  occurs  on  lifting  and  taking  away  the 
spiral  coil.  By  alternately  approaching  and  with- 
drawing the  spiral  coil  of  conducting  wire,  corre- 
sponding electric  surges  move  back  and  forth  in 
tidal  waves,  and  the  gold-leaf  swings  back  and 
forth  correspondingly. 

These  movements,  being  made  slowly,  are  less 
effective  than  when  made  rapidly,  by  rotating 
the  spiral  coils  inclosing  a  piece  of  iron  bended 
to  the  same  horse-shoe  form,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  8.  The  iron  is  rendered  magnetic  when  the 
two  ends  pass  by  the  opposite  poles  of  a  per- 
manent horse-shoe  steel  magnet,  N.  A  wheel 
and  band,  w,  are  used  to  increase  the  velocity 

3 


34 


IRON  MOVED  NEAR  MAGNETS. 


of  revolutions  of  the  coils  inclosing  the  soft  iron 
bar  B. 

Two  flexible  wires  pressing  against  the  arbors 
serve  to  break  the  circuit  for  an  instant,  and  to 
change  the  direction  of  the  alternate  currents 
to  a  uniform  circuit  by  their  adaptations  for  this 
purpose. 


Fig.  8. 

The  rapidly  ebbing  and  returning  electrical 
surges  through  the  conducting  wires,  terminated 
by  handles  at  H,  serve  to  give  a  rapid  succession 
of  electric,  shocks  when  held  in  the  hands. 

By  the  instrumentality  of  these  revolving  coils 
and  magnets,  several  thousand  changes  of  direction 
of  electric  surges  are  produced  per  minute,  when 
numerous  magnets  are  multiplied  in  the  great  ma- 
chines now  employed  for  producing  electric  light. 
It  is  practically  found  that  the  most  powerful  elec- 
tric excitation  is  produced  by  using  electro-magnets, 
formed  of  bars  of  soft  iron,  with  electric  currents 
circulating  around  them  through  spiral  coils  of 


DEVELOPS    ELECTRIC    EXCITATION.  35 

conducting  wires  wound  in  the  corkscrew  form 
of  a  helix.  The  action  of  these  currents  is 
more  powerful  than  those  about  permanent  steel 
magnets. 

Current  changers,  or  commutators,  convert 
vibrations  into  continuous  currents  in  closed  cir- 
cuits, as  previously  described. 

The  swift  axial  rotations  of  the  planets  opposite 
to  the  excited  globe  of  the  sun,  by  inducing  the 
continual  circulation  of  electric  currents  about 
each  one  of  them,  convert  them  all  into  powerful 
electro-magnets.  Thus  we  have  a  solar  system 
with  a  vast  central  electro-magnet,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  electro-magnets  revolving  around  it 
each  rotating  on  its  axis.  These  act  and  react  on 
each  other  unceasingly,  and  with  intense  power,  de- 
veloping the  phenomena  of  solar  light  and  heat. 

THE  ROTATION  OF  ALL  BODIES  OPPOSITE  TO  MAGNETS 
INDUCES  CIRCULATING  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 

Glass  cylinders  are  used  for  exhibiting  electric 
excitation  in  preference  to  metallic  plates,  because 
the  particles  of  this  compound  substance,  like 
those  of  amber  and  other  resins,  do  not  allow  of 
the  speedy  diffusion  of  the  excitation  in  every 
direction. 

To  prove  that  the  rotation  of  all  bodies  near 
magnets  induces  the  disturbance  of  the  electric 
ether,  and  the  transmission  of  action  thereby, 
Professor  Faraday  rotated  a  copper  plate  between 


36   ELECTRIC  EXCITATION  BY  COPPER  PLATES. 

the  two  poles  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  9.  The  electric  circuit  is  formed 
by  connecting  wires,  w,  w,  and  a  galvanometer  is 
used  to  indicate  the  power  of  the  excited  current 
by  the  deflection  of  the  magnetic  needle.1  Pro- 
fessor Faraday  says :  "  When  this  copper  plate 


Fig'  9- 

was  arranged  to  revolve  with  its  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  dipping-needle,  the  electric  currents 
circulating  from  east  to  west  about  the  earth's  sur- 
face served  as  a  substitute  for  those  circulating 
about  the  poles  of  the  artificial  magnet." 

Remarking  on  the  results  of  his  experiment, 
Faraday  says :  "  This  affords  an  instructive  con- 
trast with  the  operation  of  a  common  electrical 
machine.  In  the  one  is  used  a  plate  of  the  best 
non-conducting  material,  and  in  the  other  the 
most  perfect  conductor.  In  the  one,  insulation 
is  essential ;  in  the  other  it  is  fatal.  In  com- 

1  Faraday's  Experimental  Researches. 


SWIFT    ROTATIONS    OF    METALLIC    PLATES. 


37 


paring  the  quantities  of  electricity  produced,  the 
rotating  metallic  plate  does  not  at  all  fall  short  of 
the  glass  one  ;  for  it  produces  a  constant  electric 
current  capable  of  turning  a  galvanometer  needle, 
which  the  latter  cannot." 

The  excitation  induced  by  the  swift  rotation  of 
a  metallic  plate  directly  over,  or  beneath,  a  com- 
pass needle,  even  with  a  non-conducting  sheet  of 
glass  intervening,  turns  the  needle  as  regularly 
as  if  it  were  fixed  on  the  same  axis. 

This  experiment  demonstrates  that  the  circula- 
tion of  ekctric  currents,  artificially  produced  by 
the  rotation  of  one  body  near  a-nother,  is  capable 
of  transmitting  mechanical  action  even  through 
non-conducting  glass. 

Soon  after  the  publication  of  Faraday's  experi- 
ment made  with  the  slow  motion  imparted  by 
hand,  the  writer  employed  water-power  to  rotate  a 
metallic  plate  several  thousand  times  per  minute. 
An  unexpected  result  occurred  on  using  a  circular 
disc  of  soft  Russia  sheet-iron,  when  it  touched  a 
steel  magnet,  as  represented  in  Fig.  10. 

At  the  point  of  contact,  the  swift  rotation  of 
the  plate  excited  a  steel-bar 
magnet  to  a  glowing  red  heat, 
and  large  steel  files  yielded  be- 
fore the  rotating  disc  of  thin 
sheet-iron,  like  wax  before  a 
flame.  The  fused  particles  fell 
on  the  floor  beneath,  while  the  Fig.  10. 


38  TEMPERED    STEEL    CUT. 

smooth  edge  of  the  plate  remained  cool  and  but 
slightly  abraded.1 

1  An  account  of  this  experiment  was  published  in  1851,  in  the  "  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Mechanics  of  Nature,"  p.  310 ;  and  recently  this  experi- 
ment has  been  repeated  by  Mr.  Isaac  Reese,  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn.  An 
account  of  the  extraordinary  results  was  given  by  Professor  Hendrick 
to  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in  the 
year  1875.  Mr.  Reese  used  a  circular  disc  of  malleable  iron  of  the  diam- 
eter of  forty-two  inches,  and  with  a  velocity  of  the  circumference  nearly 
five  miles  per  minute.  As  stated:  "  Steel  bars,  hardened  and  polished, 
of  the  diameter  of  two  or  three  inches,  may  be  cut  off  simply  by  the 
overpowering  excitation  induced  by  the  swift  rotation  of  a  thin  circular 
disc  of  soft  sheet-iron.  The  best  steel  was  rapidly  cut  through.  Sparks 
in  a  steady  stream  were  thrown  off,  and  particles  of  steel  were  found 
melted  together  in  a  conical  shape  beneath  the  machine.  While  this 
fusion  of  the  steel  takes  place,  the  disc  itself  remains  but  little  heated." 

The  powerful  excitation  induced  by  the  rotation  of  one%ody  near  an- 
other in  this  experiment,  shows  the  superiority  of  this  method  of  devel- 
oping electric  excitation  to  that  of  Voltaic  batteries  employed  to  render 
a  small  wire  red  hot.  The  velocity  of  the  equatorial  surface  of  the 
earth,  continually  rotated  opposite  the  body  of  the  sun,  is  nearly  four- 
fold swifter  than  that  of  the  rim  of  the  rotated  plate  used  in  the  experi- 
ment of  Mr.  Reese. 


STANDARD    MEASURE    OF    TIME.  39 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  PERFECT  REGULARITY  OF  THE  DAILY  ROTATION 
OF  THE  EARTH  SERVES  AS  THE  STANDARD  MEASURE 
OF  TIME,  SPACE,  WEIGHT,  QUANTITY  OF  MATTER,  AND 
MECHANICAL  FORCE. 


measuring  time,  one  rotation  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis  is  adopted  as  the  unit  standard, 
denoted  a  DAY.  The  minutest  subdivision  of 
time  -is  86^  Part  °f  one  rotation  of  the  earth, 
denoted  a  SECOND. 

The  earth  turns  on  its  axis  three  hundred  and 
sixty-six  times  in  the  period  of  one  orbital  revolu- 
tion about  the  sun.  While  the  same  spot  on  the 
earth's  equator  passes  under  a  meridian  star 
three  hundred  and  sixty-six  times  yearly,  it  passes 
only  365^  times  under  the  meridian  sun.  Nearly 
one  entire  day  is  lost  by  the  circling  movement  of 
the  earth  around  the  sun,  as  occurs  when  a  navi- 
gator sails  from  east  to  west  around  the  world. 
Consequently,  each  solar  day  is  twenty-four  hours 
and  four  minutes  long. 

A  heavy  body  attached  to  the  end  of  a  rod 
exactly  39^  inches  in  length,  forming  a  pen- 
dulum, will  make  precisely  one  swing  in  the 
part  of  one  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 


All  bodies  used  as  material  measures  of  length 


40  ROTATION    OF    THE    EARTH. 

being  liable  to  wear,  to  expansion,  and  to  gradual 
decomposition,  it  is  established  by  statute  law  of 
Great  Britain,  that  "the  length  of  a  pendulum 
vibrating  in  the  ^  part  of  the  daily  rotation  of 
the  earth,  in  a  vacuum  at  the  sea-level,  and  in  the 
latitude  of  London,  at  the  temperature  of  sixty 
degrees,  shall  be  resorted  to  for  the  reconstruction 
of  the  standard  brass-measures  of  the  realm,  in 
case  of  their  destruction  or  loss." 

The  unvarying  velocity  of  the  daily  rotation  of 
the  earth  sustains  a  correspondingly  unvarying 
excitation  of  electric  currents  about  it,  with  conse- 
quent uniform  electro-magnetic  forces  of  action 
and  reaction  between  every  particle  of  the  mass. 
The  extent  of  the  electro-magnetic  force  of  grav- 
itation consequently  represents  the  quantity  of 
particles  in  a  body,  as  ascertained  by  counter- 
poising weights  commonly  employed  for  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  matter  in  articles  of 
merchandise. 

The  unvarying  force  of  gravitating  descent  of 
one  pound  thirty-three  thousand  feet  in  one  min- 
ute, or  thirty-three  thousand  pounds  one  foot 
in  one  minute,  is  adopted  by  engineers  as  the 
measure  of  the  power  of  a  work-horse,  as  esti- 
mated in  "foot-pounds,"  and  called  "one  horse- 
power." 

The  foot-pound  is  now  commonly  adopted  as  a 
standard  unit  of  all  motive-power,  even  including 
that  of  heat  employed  for  operating  steam-engines, 
as  tested  by  Mr.  Joules.  The  precise  extent  of  me- 


FOOT-POUNDS    AN    EQUIVALENT    OF    HEAT.       4! 

chanical  action  requisite  to  produce  the  increase  of 
the  vibrations  of  the  electric  ether  pervading  the 
particles  of  a  pound  of  water,  to  raise  its  heat  one 
degree  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  has  been  ascertained 
by  Meyer  and  Joules  to  be  the  equivalent  of  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-two  foot-pounds.  Instead  of 
the  rotating  cylinder  of  an  electrical  machine,  they 
had  recourse  to  rotating  a  little  paddle-wheel  in  a 
box  containing  a  pound  of  water  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  thirty-nine  degrees  of  Fahrenheit.  In  this 
way,  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two  foot-pounds 
have  been  adopted  as  "  the  British  unit-standard 
measure  of  the  increase  of  one  degree  of  heat  in 
a  pound  of  water;"  and  on  this  basis  have  been 
made  useful  comparative  estimates  as  to  the  eco- 
nomical employment  of  fuel  for  developing  heat 
as  motive-power. 

The  vibrations  of  the  ether  pervading  a  bar  of 
steel  by  the  swift  rotation  of  a  disc  of  sheet-iron, 
as  previously  described,  would  probably  develop 
one  degree  of  heat  in  a  pound  of  water,  by  a  force 
of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two  foot-pounds, 
were  the  disc  made  to  rotate  against  the  poles 
of  a  horse-shoe  magnet  partially  immersed  in  the 
pound  of  water. 

In  like  manner,  the  gravitating  force  of  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-two  foot-pounds  may  be  em- 
ployed to  rotate  the  cylinder  of  an  inductive  elec- 
trical machine,  to  test  and  measure  the  intensity  of 
both  heat  and  light  by  the  precise  extent  of  action 
employed  to  produce  their  development. 


42  POPULAR   THEORIES. 


CHAPTER   V. 

POPULAR   THEORIES    AS    TO    THE    SUN. 

HpHE  cause  of  solar  excitation  is  commonly 
ascribed  to  the  combustion  of  gases,  or 
other  inflammable  substances,  such  as  are  used 
for  maintaining  beacon  fires.  This  theory  in- 
cludes the  question  of  providing  a  vast  quantity 
of  fuel  for  supplying  such  a  great  conflagration. 
Newton  suggested  that  the  occasional  visits  of 
comets  near  the  sun  might  serve  for  transporting 
fuel  to  sustain  the  waning  supply.  Others  have 
suggested  that  meteoric  showers,  by  continually 
falling  on  the  orb  of  the  sun,  might  excite  it 
similarly  to  the  pounding  of  a  bar  of  iron  on  an 
anvil ;  by  which  process  blacksmiths  sometimes 
kindle  their  forge  fires.  This  theory  opens  the 
question,  "  What  Cyclops  untiringly  wields  the 
meteoric  hammers?"  The  combustion  of  gases 
is  also  suggested ;  for  the  existence  of  hydrogen 
in  the  solar  orb  is  indicated  by  the  lines  of  the 
spectrum  analysis.  But  the  difficulty  in  the  way 
of  this  theory  is  the  .want  of  an  adequate  supply 
of  free  molecules  of  oxygen,  of  which  eight-fold 
more  is  requisite  than  of  the  hydrogen ;  with  the 


THEORIES    OF    SOLAR    HEAT.  43 

resulting  product  by  combustion  of  nine  fold  of 
water.  This  would  finally  cover  the  surface  of 
the  sun  with  a  fire-extinguishing  ocean,  like  three 
fourths  of  our  globe  covered  by  seas.  Were  the 
globe  of  the  sun  composed  of  carbon  or  coal,  and 
surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  the  com- 
bustion would  be  terminated  by  absorbing  three- 
fold its  weight  of  oxygen,  and  producing  a  fire- 
extinguishing  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid  gas ;  the 
presence  of  which,  unless  there  are  forest  leaves 
on  the  sun  as  on  our  earth  to  absorb  it,  would, 
when  increased  to  only  one  fifth  of  the  solar  at- 
mosphere, finally  extinguish  combustion,  if  that 
atmosphere  is  like  ours. 

In  the  modern  invention  of  fire-extinguishers, 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  portable  cylinders  is  em- 
ployed as  the  most  effective  check  to  confla- 
grations. 

An  astronomer  has  calculated  that  to  sustain 
for  a  few  thousand  years  the  intensity  of  solar 
light  and  heat,  would  require  a  quantity  of  solid 
coal  as  great  as  the  bulk  of  the  earth. 

As  the  compression  of  air  and  other  substances 
develops  heat,  some  theorists,  have  suggested  this 
cause,  but  without  proposing  any  mode  of  com- 
pressing the  solar  atmosphere. 

In  the  "  Reported  Observations "  of  the  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun  in  1878,  President  Morton 
affirms,  that  "  evidences  tend  to  sustain  the  the- 
ory  that  the  sun's  heat  is  maintained  by  the  im- 


44  "  FRESH    WOODS    AND    PASTURES    NEW." 

pact  of  meteoric  matter;  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  sun's  fires  may  be  fed  with  partly  mineral 
matter,  and  again  for  considerable  periods  with 
meteorites,  highly  charged  with  hydrogen,  giving 
the  sun  a  far-reaching  atmosphere  of  the  ignited 
gas." 

Professor  Proctor,  in  recapitulating  these  the- 
ories, says :  "  By  all  of  them  the  means  of  sus- 
taining the  solar  excitation  would  in  time  be 
exhausted."  In  referring  to  the  pounding  of 
meteors  on  the  sun  as  on  an  anvil,  the  professor 
remarks :  "  All  the  uproar  on  our  earth  would 
be  an  absolute  quiet  compared  with  this;  even 
including  the  hideous  groanings  of  earthquakes." 
To  cheer  his  audience  with  the  hope  of  not  being 
left  in  the  dark  by  the  last  fading  glimmer  of 
expiring  sunshine,  the  professor  humorously  sug- 
gests :  "  Our  sun  is  swiftly  travelling  through  the 
space  of  the  heavens,  carrying  with  him  all  the 
planets  and  comets ;  and  in  the  course  of  his 
travels  may  come  to  new  regions  of  meteors,  as 
to  *  fresh  woods  and  pastures  new.' " 

Our  American  astronomer,  Professor  Young, 
modestly  says :  "  What  sustains  the  tremendous 
solar  heat,  I  cannot  answer." 

THE    SUN    COMPOSED     OF     ELEMENTARY     SUBSTANCES 
SIMILAR    TO    THOSE    OF    THE    EARTH. 

The  following  list  of  elementary  substances  ex- 
isting in  the  globe  of  the  sun  is  given  by  J.  N. 


SUBSTANCES    COMPOSING    THE    SUN.  45 

Lockyer,  so  far  as  completed  up  to  November, 
1877,  by  means  of  the  spectroscope :  — 

"  Sodium,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium,  chromium, 
nickel,  barium,  zinc,  cobalt,  hydrogen,  manganese, 
titanium,  aluminium,  strontium,  lead,  cadmium,  ce- 
rium, uranium,  potassium,  vanadium,  palladium, 
and  molybdenum." 

He  says  that  "  the  existence  of  carbon,  silicium, 
thallium,  chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine,  though  not 
distinctly  confirmed,  is  probable ;  "  and  adds  that, 
"out  of  the  fifty-nine  metals  found  on  the  earth, 
thirty-one  are  known  with  more  or  less  certainty 
in  the  sun."  Professor  Proctor  says :  "  The  exist- 
ence of  iron  in  the  solar  orb  suggests  the  similar 
use  of  this  metal  in  arts  and  manufactories  as  has 
been  made  in  the  progress  of  human  civilization." 

Discoveries  of  similar  elementary  substances  in 
our  sun  and  in  other  stellar  suns  render  it  not  im- 
probable that  all  the  solar  systems  are  constituted 
like  our  own,  with  similar  molecules  and  similar 
inhabitants,  governed  by  similar  material  and  me- 
chanical laws,  and  confirm  the  existence  of  analo- 
gies between  celestial  and  terrestrial  phenomena. 


46        MOTION    OF    PLANETS    EXCITES    SUNSHINE. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  EXCITING  CAUSE  OF  SOLAR  LIGHT  AND  HEAT  TRACED 
TO  THE  MECHANICAL  FORCE  OF  THE  REVOLVING 
HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

"DRECEDING  investigations  show  that  the 
movement  of  bodies  near  and  about  each 
other  puts  in  motion  the  electric  ether,  which 
transmits  to  the  brain,  through  the  nerves  of  sight 
and  feeling,  the  impulses  recognized  as  light  and 
heat. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  penetrate  the  remote 
regions  of  infinite  space,  the  natural  method  of 
studying  the  operation  of  the  solar  system  is  to 
reason,  by  analogy,  from  terrestrial  to  celestial 
mechanics.  This  method,  as  we  have  stated,  has 
been  sanctioned  by  the  most  eminent  astrono- 
mers. If  the  mere  movement  of  one  disc  near 
another  so  develops  light  as  to  obtain  for  a  simple 
instrument  the  name  of  "  Electrophorus,"  or  sun- 
shine producer,  and  if  the  rotation  of  one  cylinder 
opposite  to  another  excites  a  dazzling  light,  —  we 
may  consider  that  the  swift  revolutions  of  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  great  globes  about  the 
sun,  seven  hundred  fold  greater  than  them  all,  are 
similarly  employed  for  the  conversion  of  their  me- 
chanical force  into  the  light  and  heat  of  sunshine. 


ELECTRIC  CURRENTS  AROUND  THE  SUN.    47 

In  the  operation  of  an  inductive  electrical  machine, 
the  disc  which  is  at  rest  is  independently  excited 
by  friction,  so  that  it  will  react  when  the  other 
disc  is  turned  opposite  to  it.  In  the  operation  of 
the  solar  system,  instead  of  an  artificial  excitation, 
as  of  the  disc  at  rest,  the  great  central  orb  is  ex- 
cited by  a  swift  rotation  on  its  axis  (with  a  surface 
velocity  at  the  equator  of  seventy-four  miles  per 
minute),  opposite  to  the  several  planets,  each  sim- 
ilarly excited  by  rotation  on  its  axis. 

This  axial  rotation  induces  electric  currents 
around  the  sun,  and  arouncl  each  of  the  planets ; 
which  thus  become  polarized. 

With  the  extraordinary  magnitude  of  the  cen- 
tral orb,  combined  with  its  *  extreme  velocity  of 
rotation,  a  correspondingly  greater  intensity  of 
electric  excitation  of  the  solar  electro-sphere  is  to 
be  anticipated.  These  anticipations  are  confirmed 
by  the  observations  of  astronomers  during  total 
eclipses  of  the  sun,  while  the  dark  disc  of  the 
moon  screens  its  dazzling  brightness,  and  leaves 
visible  only  the  extreme  ring  of  light,  denoted  "  a 
corona?  Observers  have  described  this  corona 
as  exhibiting  coruscations,  wildly  darting  off  far 
beyond  the  extreme  edge  of  the  solar  disc,  flash- 
ing thousands  of  miles  in  tongues  of  flame.  This 
description  corresponds  with  the  flashings  and  cor- 
uscations occasionally  appearing  in  the  aurora 
borealis  above  the  earth's  atmosphere.  Between 
the  luminous  flashings  over  the  surface  of  the 


48         EXTENT    AND    EFFECTS    OF    SOLAR    SPOTS. 

sun,  at  times,  are  openings  that  disclose  the  dark 
portions  of  the  globe  beneath  ;  which  constitute 
"spots  on  the  sun."  These  openings  are  con- 
stantly varying  with  a  rapidity  that  only  the  quick 
movements  of  the  electric  ether  will  explain. 
"There  are  instances  in  which  solar  spots  of  fifty 
thousand  miles  diameter  are  formed  in  a  single 
day;  and  others,  where  they  disappear  as  sud- 
denly. The  brightest  parts  are  not  stationary,  but 
fluctuate  like  electric  flashes."  It  is  also  found 
that  "the  appearance  of  solar  spots  is  attended 
with  extraordinary  perturbations  of  compass  nee- 
dles all  over  the  earth."  This  fact  shows  the 
direct  relationship  and  electro-magnetic  connec- 
tion between  the  solar  excitation  and  the  electric 
currents  continually  circulating  about  the  earth, 
which  control  the  movements  of  all  compass 
needles. 

Modern  observers  have  noticed  electrical  dis- 
turbances, similar  to  those  of  the  aurora  borealis, 
above  the  great  planets  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  in 
duced  by  their  rotations  opposite  to  their  numer- 
ous moons.  Mr.  Bond,  of  Cambridge,  describes 
them  as  "self-luminous  appearances,"  disclosing 
dark  openings  that  reveal  the  body  of  the  planet, 
somewhat  corresponding  with  the  spots  on  the 
sun. 

That  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  disc  of  the 
sun  does  not  show  the  true  magnitude  of  the  solid 
globe  beneath  its  exterior  luminous  photosphere, 


PLANETS    ARE    ELECTRO-MAGNETS.  49 

is  manifest  from  the  calculations  of  the  density  of 
the  sun  at  only  one  fourth  of  the  density  of  the 
earth.  Were  our  earth  measured  from  the  ex- 
terior of  the  luminous  coruscations  of  the  aurora 
above  the  atmosphere,  its  estimated  density  would 
be  similarly  reduced. 

The  uniform  axial  rotations  of  the  planetary 
bodies,  by  determining  the  regular  circulation  of 
electric  currents  about  each  one  of  them,  convert 
them  all  into  powerful  electro-magnets,  with  the 
consequent  development  of  reciprocal  action  and 
reaction  between  them  all,  denoted  "  the  universal 
attraction  of  gravitation." 

The  swift  orbital  revolutions  of  the  planets  of 
our  system,  and  also  those  of  countless  worlds 
revolving  about  other  stellar  suns,  in  rushing 
through  the  electric  ether  produce  continual  vi- 
brations, which  impinge  against  the  surfaces  of  all 
portions  of  matter  composing  the  material  uni- 
verse. The  vibratory  impulses  being  imparted 
equally  in  opposite  directions  against  all  the  ex- 
ternal parts  of  bodies  and  molecules,  neutralize 
each  other,  and  consequently  molecules  exist  in  an 
electrostatic  condition.  By  diminishing  the  vibra- 
tory impulses  against  one  side  of  a  molecule,  it  is 
ready  to  yield  instantaneously  to  the  predominant 
impulses  against  the  opposite  side,  with  a  quick 
resultant  movement  resembling  an  "  inherent 
self-motive  power"  in  lifeless  molecules.  This 
explanation  confirms  the  definition  of  molecules 


-  * 


50      THE  SUN  A  CENTRE  OF  REACTION. 

given  by  Buscovich,  a^  being  "  centres  of  forces ;  " 
which  they  really  are  while  subjected  to  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  electric  ether  equally  on  all  sides. 

The  great  central  orb  of  the  solar  system  sim- 
ilarly serves  as  a  centre  of  forces,  against  which 
impinge  the  vibratory  impulses  of  the  universal 
electric  ether,  excited  by  the  orbital  revolutions  of 
the  planets.  From  this  central  point  of  reaction  the 
vibrations  of  the  electric  ether,  continually  beating 
against  it,  are  reflected  back  in  sunshine  like  sur- 
ges from  a  rock  in  mid-ocean,  leaving  its  surface 
covered  with  sparkling  foam.  Without  a  point  of 
reaction,  there  can  be  no  action.  Action  and  re- 
action are  always  equal  and  in  opposite  directions. 
The  sun  serves  as  a  point  of  reaction,  like  the 
lump  of  lime  placed  in  front  of  a  pale  jet  of  oxy- 
hydrogen  flame,  which  by  its  reaction  develops 
the  intensity  of  the  vibrations  of  the  flame,  and 
produces  the  dazzling  "  calcium  light."  The  sim- 
ilar reflection  of  the  vibrations  excited  by  the  or- 
bital planetary  force,  we  call  sunshine. 

The  reaction  from  a  fine  platinum  wire  is  used 
to  develop  the  intense  action  of  voltaic  batteries 
and  magneto-electric  machines.  The  molecules 
of  z.fine  wire  are  insufficient  to  conduct  the  whole 
force  of  the  electric  current,  and  its  action  is  thus 
resolved  into  light  and  heat.  By  making  a  break 
in  a  conducting  wire  transmitting  a  powerful  vol- 
taic or  magneto-electric  current,  the  particles  of 
intervening  air  and  of  the  all-pervading  electric 


STELLAR    SUNS    CENTRES    OF    REACTION.  51 

ether  receive  the  impulses,*and  become  points  of 
reaction  in  vibrations  of  brilliant  light  and  in- 
tense heat. 

These  analogies  teach  us  to  regard  the  central 
orb  of  the  solar  system  as  the  point  of  reaction, 
representing  the  action  imparted  to  the  universal 
electric  ether  by  the  combined  force  of  all  the 
magnetic  planets  circling  around  it. 

As  similar  centres  of  reaction,  all  the  stellar 
suns  serve  to  reflect  the  vibrations  imparted  to 
them  by  the  surges  of  the  electric  ether,  put  in 
motion  by  the  orbital  revolutions  of  planets 
around  each  of  them.  The  very  fact  of  the  shin- 
ing of  each  star  in  the  evening  sky  is  the  strong- 
est possible  proof  of  the  existence  of  worlds 
revolving  around  it,  as  the  exciting  cause. 

The  suggestions  of  the  popular  authors  before 
cited,  as  to  the  probable  causes  of  the  intense 
excitation  of  the  solar  orb,  leave  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  the  original  source  of  solar  splendor  un- 
solved. 

Without  an  internal  source  of  supply,  or  some 
sufficiently  active  exterior  cause  to  maintain  the 
solar  light  and  heat,  with  such  an  intense  and 
unceasing  emission  of  both,  it  might  well  be  sup- 
posed that  the  solar  excitation  would  at  some  time 
be  exhausted,  and  the  orb  become  the  coldest  point 
in  the  universe. 

The  case  is  very  different  if  we  consider  the 
sun  to  be  passive  matter,  reacting,  as  before  stated, 


52      HEAT  CARRIED  OFF  BY  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 

like  a  piece  of  lime  used  for  reflecting  the  brilliant 
calcium  light,  or  like  the  readily  conducting  char- 
coal points,  which  are  not  even  kindled  while  used 
for  the  radiating  arcs  of  electric  light,  rivalling 
sunshine.  They  serve  as  electrodes,  like  the  solar 
orb,  passively  to  receive  and  transmit  electric 
excitation.  A  concave  mirror  similarly  receives 
and  reflects  the  light  and  heat  of  sunshine,  with 
sufficient  intensity  to  melt  the  most  refractory 
metals,  while  it  remains  cold. 

The  friction  of  cylinders  of  electric  machines 
does  not  heat  them,  because  the  action  is  speedily 
diffused  by  the  current  through  the  rows  of  pointed 
wires  arranged  opposite  to  them.  In  voltaic  bat- 
teries, the  liquids  do  not  become  hot  by  the  chem- 
ical action  of  the  acids,  —  the  platinum  plates  and 
conducting  wires  serving  to  transmit  the  action 
in  closed  electric  circuits  or  currents.  Neither 
do  the  brilliant  coruscations  of  the  aurora  bore- 
alis  heat  the  air  or  earth  beneath  them.  On  the 
contrary,  the  coruscations  of  the  brilliant  electric 
flashes,  and  also  of  lightning  from  condensing  sul- 
try vapors  in  the  sky,  convert  the  vibrations  of  heat 
into  electric  currents,  that  quickly  carry  it  off. 

To  test  the  effects  produced  by  the  electro- 
static condition  resulting  from  an  equal  action  of 
the  electric  vibrations  surrounding  a  body  on  all 
sides,  Professor  Faraday  made  an  experiment  with 
an  insulated  metallic  chamber,  into  which,  whilst 
excited  by  an  electrical  machine,  he  entered.  He 


THE  SUN  AS  A  CHEERFUL  DWELLING-PLACE.       53 

says :  "  While  the  exterior  was  sufficiently  excited 
to  dart  off  sparks  several  inches  in  length  from 
the  outer  sides,  I  could  not  detect  the  least 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  any  electric  action 
within  the  chamber? 

Considering  the  globe  of  the  sun  to  be  in  a 
highly  excited  electrical  state,  corresponding  with 
the  metallic  chamber,  or  with  the  earth  overarched 
by  the  coruscations  of  the  aurora  borealis,  we  may 
rationally  discard  the  theory  of  its  being  covered 
with  billows  of  flaming  gases  or  molten  lava, 
seething  like  the  crater  of  a  volcano,  or  that  it 
suffers  the  terrible  pounding  of  falling  meteors 
and  asteroids.  The  great  central  orb  may  have 
an  unvarying  temperate  clime,  exempt  from  ex- 
tremes of  summer  heat  or  winter  cold,  with  no 
nights  of  gloom.  It  may  even  be  a  bright  and 
cheerful  dwelling-place,  with  sunny  landscapes ;  a 
paradise  of  perennial  verdure  and  ever-blooming 
flowers. 

If  a  few  small  magnets  revolved  around  the  axis 
of  a  magneto-electric  machine  suffice  to  illumine 
more  than  a  thousand  square  miles  of  dark  head- 
lands and  waters,  —  reasoning  from  terrestrial  to 
celestial  mechanics,  how  indescribable  must  be  the 
magnificence  of  that  lighthouse  in  the  heavens, 
whose  beams  are  the  result  of  the  combined  move- 
ments of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  vast 
magnetic  planets  revolving  around  the  central  orb 
of  the  solar  system  ! 


54       WHILE    PLANETS    MOVE,    SUN    WILL    SHINE. 

As  long  as  these  mighty  planets  continue  to 
revolve,  so  long  will  the  sun  continue  to  shine. 
The  question  of  the  source  of  solar  light  and 
heat  is  therefore  resolved  simply  into  that  of  the 
source  of  natural  motive-power ;  namely,  the  axial 
rotation  and  orbital  revolution  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 


MAGNETO-ELECTRIC    MACHINES.  55 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ARTIFICIAL    EXCITATION    OF    LIGHT    BY   MAGNETO- 
ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 

"V/TORE  than  thirty  years  ago,  attempts  were 
made  to  utilize  the  excitation  of  voltaic  bat- 
teries for  illumination.  The  subsequent  plan  of 
exciting  electric  light  by  revolving  magnets  has 
revived  hopes  of  success.  Professor  Faraday,  the 
originator  of  this  mode  of  producing  electric  exci- 
tation, was  employed  by  the  British  government 
to  construct  for  a  lighthouse  on  the  shores  of  the 
British  channel  a  magneto-electric  machine,  ope- 
rated by  a  steam-engine  of  three-horse  power.  A 
like  machine,  afterward  placed  in  a  lighthouse  on 
the  opposite  French  coast,  is  described  as  "making 
three  hundred  revolutions  per  minute,  and  pro- 
ducing a  light  equal  to  that  of  nine  hundred  Car- 
cel  burners."  "  The  lines  of  the  spectrum,  and  the 
photographic  pictures  thereby  produced,  are  equal 
to  those  produced  by  sunshine." 

In  this  machine,  "  the  heat  transmitted  by  the 
electric  current  through  a  platinum  wire  of  No. 
1 8  gauge  and  eight  feet  long,  instantaneously 
fused  the  wire.  A  round  file,  four  inches  long 
and  half  an  inch  diameter,  was  burnt  away  in  five 
minutes." 


56  ELECTRIC    LIGHTS. 

Quite  recently,  numerous  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  construction  and  operation  of 
magneto-electric  machines,  for  a  more  general 
utilization  of  the  electric  light.1 

The  principal  difficulty  in  the  practical  use  of 
the  electric  light  is  the  regulation  of  its  dazzling 
brilliancy,  which  is  painful  to  the  eyes,  and  at- 
tended with  a  contrast  of  very  dark  shadows. 
To  obviate  this  objection,  experimenters  have 
attempted  to  soften  the  brilliancy  by  reflection 
from  white  ceilings,  resembling  daylight.  An- 
other difficulty  occurs  in  the  gradual  wasting 
away  of  the  particles  of  the  carbon  points,  used 
at  the  break  in  the  circuit;  which  the  electric 
flame  must  leap  across,  to  transmit  the  vibrations 
of  light  through  the  electric  ether  pervading  the 
particles  of  air.  These  points  require ,  to  be 
moved  nearer  together  by  automatic  apparatus, 
to  compensate  for  their  gradual  wasting  away ; 
and  when  the  current  is  stopped,  it  is  necessary 
to  reinstate  the  circuit  by  a  new  contact  of  the 
points,  and  to  make  a  new  separation,  for  a  vol- 
taic and  magneto-electric  circuit  are  alike  checked 
by  a  very  small  interval  of  space. 

In  attempting  to  avoid  these  difficulties,  ingen- 
ious experimenters  have  devised  self-regulating 

1  A  machine  exhibited  at  the  Fair  of  the  American  Institute  in  New 
York,  is  described  as  "  producing  a  single  electric  circuit  for  operating 
four  lamps,  each  equal  to  the  light  of  three  thousand  candles,  or  two 
hundred  five-feet  gas-burners,  requiring  for  its  maintenance  a  force  of 
seven-horse  power." 


MOTIVE-POWER    REQUIRED.  57 

carbon  points,  and  also  the  use  of  a  circuit  of  fine 
wires  for  developing,  by  their  molecular  vibrations, 
the  excitation  transmitted  through  them,  in  the 
phenomenon  of  incandescence.  But  these  molec- 
ular vibrations  disintegrate  the  wires  and  render 
them  liquid,  or  aeriform,  and  incapable  of  use.  If 
the  intensity  of  the  electric  excitation  by  magneto- 
electric  machines  were  equal  to  that  excited  by 
rotated  inductive  machines,  this  difficulty  would 
have  been  obviated,  as  the  latter  transmit  flashes 
through  a  foot  or  two  of  space.  The  difference 
between  the  extent  of  motive-power  requisite  to 
operate  a  magneto-electric  machine  and  a  Holtz 
inductive  machine,  is  about  inversely  as  the  length 
of  the  electric  sparks  produced  by  them.  A 
very  slight  motive-power  operates  the  inductive 
machine,  while  several  horse-power  is  requisite 
to  operate  magneto-electric  machines.  A  great 
amount  of  mechanical  force  is  necessary  to  put 
the  electric  ether  in  motion  at  the  instant  the 
wires  are  connected  to  make  the  circuit. 

This  impressive  fact  affords  evidence  of  the 
conversion  of  mechanical  action  into  light  and 
heat,  and  also  of  the  transmission  of  motive -power 
by  electric  ether  with  its  high  velocity,  and  af- 
fords a  prospect  of  utilizing  the  electric  medium 
by  conducting  wires,  as  a  substitute  for  bands  and 
shafts  in  operating  machinery  at  a  distance. 

The  question  of  cost  and  conveniency  of  excit- 
ing electric  light,  not  of  its  efficiency,  must  event- 


58  LIGHT   THE    RESULT    OF    FORCE. 

ually  determine  the  extent  to  which  it  may  be 
used. 

Professor  Anthony,  of  Cornell  University,  states, 
as  the  result  of  his  experiments  in  burning  kero- 
sine  oil  in  lamps,  and  beneath  a  boiler  for  power 
to  produce  a  magneto-electric  light,  that  the  latter 
mode  was  nearly  double  in  efficiency  with  the 
same  quantity  of  oil.  With  the  cost  of  machin- 
ery and  skilled  labor  to  operate  magneto-electric 
machines,  and  the  inconveniences  of  employing 
motive-power  on  a  small  scale,  the  problem  of  the 
general  use  of  electric  light  remains  to  be  practi- 
cally determined.1 

These  illustrations  demonstrate  that  light  and 
heat,  constituents  of  sunshine,  are  produced  by 
mechanical  impulses  imparted  to  revolve  magnets 
about  a  central  axis ;  analogous  to  the  natural 
revolutions  of  the  magnetic  bodies  of  the  planets 
about  the  central  axis  of  the  solar  system,  as  a 
sublime  magneto-electric  machine  in  continual 
operation  in  the  heavens. 

1  In  view  of  the  great  extent  of  motive-power  requisite  to  operate 
magneto-electric  machines,  with  the  minute  extent  of  its  sparks,  and  the 
minute  amount  of  motive-power  requisite  to  operate  Holtz'  electric  ma- 
chine, with  its  brilliant  sparks  leaping  one  or  two  feet  through  the  air, 
it  may  be  a  question  for  experimental  determination  whether  this  mode 
of  excitation  may  prove  more  efficient  for  illumination  with  the  same 
amount  of  motive-power  applied  to  rotate  glass,  or  ebonite  plates. 


THE    SENSORIAL    NERVES.  59 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE     SENSORIAL     NERVES     CONSIDERED     AS     INSTRU- 
MENTAL  TESTS    OF    PHYSICAL    SCIENCE. 

• 

TIpLEMENTARY  molecules  are  classed  as  sim- 
ilar, because  they  transmit  similar  reactions 
and  modifications  of  the  axial  and  orbital  forces, 
through  the  electric  ether  pervading  the  nerves 
leading  to  the  brain.  The  planetary  force  being 
the  immediate  source  of  this  mechanical  action, 
all  we  know  of  molecules  is  their  power  of  mod- 
ifying the  action  of  this  force. 

The  electro-mechanical  reaction  from  molecules 
being  transmitted  through  five  peculiar  arrange- 
ments of  conducting  fibres,  denoted  "  Sensorial 
Nerves,"  the  study  of  the  special  functions  of 
these  nerves,  as  instrumental  tests  of  physical 
science,  is  of  primary  importance  to  a  right  in- 
terpretation of  the  action  they  transmit  to  the 
brain. 

The  electric  signals  transmitted  through  the 
sensorial  nerves  are  as  unintelligible  to  a  new- 
born infant,  as  are  the  intermittent  clickings,  or 
the  dots  and  dashes,  to  a  new  apprentice  in  a  tel- 
egraph office.  To  ascertain  what  the  flame  of  a 
candle  is,  an  infant  attempts  to  grasp  it ;  and  thus 
practically  learns  the  intensity  of  its  vibrations  by 


6O  THEY   MODIFY    SOLAR    REACTION. 

the  extreme  thrill  of  the  nerves  of  feeling  recog- 
nized as  pain.  The  conversion  of  mechanical 
action  into  heat  is  early  learned  by  the  sensation 
of  warmth  felt  on  rubbing  the  hands  forcibly  to- 
gether, long  before  the  knowledge  is  theoretically 
acquired.  The  impression  of  "  seeing  stars,"  pro- 
duced by  a  blow  on  the  head,  is  another  exempli- 
fication of  the  conversion  of  mechanical  action 
into  light. 

The  mechanical  action  of  the  orbital  planetary 
force  being  made  manifest  by  reaction  from  the  sun 
as  sunshine,  we  must  look  to  this  reaction  for  the 
immediate  source  of  sensation,  and  of  knowledge 
.of  the  world  around  us.  It  is  narrated  in  classic 
story,  that  "  the  rising  sun  excited  the  morning 
breezes  to  thrill  the  chords  of  the  harp  of  Mem- 
non  to  melodious  vibrations."  So  the  exciting 
power  of  the  rising  sun  thrills  the  nerves  of  every 
living  animal,  as  the  attuned  strings  of  a  harp. 
The  vibratory  solar  reaction  is  modified  by  the 
lily  and  the  rose,  so  as  to  reach  the  eye  in  varied 
colors  ;  it  is  modified  by  their  exhalations,  so  as  to 
reach  the  olfactory  nerves  as  odors ;  it  is  modified 
by  the  juices  of  plants  and  fruits,  so  as  to  reach 
the  nerves  of  the  tongue  as  flavors. 

A  general  inattention  to  the  true  functions  of 
the  sensorial  nerves,  as  tests  of  physical  science, 
has  so  blended  ideas  of  mechanical  causes  and 
effects  as  to  be  still  a  most  serious  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  knowledge.  Identical  mechanical  im- 


ARE    TESTS    OF    PHYSICAL    SCIENCE. 


61 


pulses  are  called  by  as  many  different  names  as 
there  are  different  lines  of  sensorial  nerves  serv- 
ing to  transmit  the  action  to  the  brain.  This  is 
exemplified  in  the  following  table  :  — 

DIFFERENT  NAMES  GIVEN  TO  THE  SAME  ELECTRO-MECHANICAL  ACTION 
TRANSMITTED  THROUGH  THE  FIVE  SENSORIAL  NERVES. 


Mechanical  action,  trans- 
mitted by  electric  ether 
through  the  nerves  .  . 

r  of  sight, 

Of  feeling, 

Of  tasting, 

Of  smelling, 

Of  hearing, 

Is  variously  recognized 

Light. 
Darkness. 

Heat. 

Cold. 

Flavor. 

Flavorless. 

Odor. 
Odorless. 

Sound. 
Silence. 

Colors. 

Temperature. 

f  Various 
1  Flavors. 

I  Various 
1  Odors. 

j  Musical 
1  Tones. 

From  inattention  to  the  functions  of  the  sensorial 
nerves,  an  identical  electro-mechanical  impulse  is 
ascribed  to  three  different  causes,  —  Heat,  Light, 
and  Electricity.  For  ages  these  have  been  consid- 
ered "  Imponderable  Agents  of  Nature,"  employed 
to  produce  the  phenomena  appearing  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  world  around. 

To  avoid  errors,  the  student  of  physical  science 
requires  primary  instruction  in  the  use  of  the 
tools  he  is  destined  to  employ.  Because  two 
different  arrangements  of  nerves  —  those  of  the  eye 
and  of  the  hand  —  are  requisite  for  holding  com- 
munication harmlessly  and  painlessly  with  heated 
and  ignited  bodies,  this  is  no  apology  for  calling 
the  cause  of  these  different  intensities  of  excita- 
tion by  the  two  different  names  of  "  Light "  and 
"  Heat ; "  although  it  is  useful  to  designate  the 
different  effects  produced  thereby  by  different 


62  OPTIC    NERVES    TESTS    OF    HEAT. 

names.  The  gelatinous  fibres  of  the  nerves  of 
feeling  in  the  hand  would  serve  only  once  for 
contact  with  an  ignited  body.  They  would  by 
that  single  contact  be  converted  into  vapor.  To 
hold  communication  with  ignited  bodies  without 
pain  or  injury,  there  is  provided  another  arrange- 
ment of  telegraph  nerves  from  the  brain  to  the 
retina  of  the  eye ;  which  is  studiously  protected 
from  liability  to  injury  by  highly  excited  bodies. 
The  ball  of  the  eye  is  sunk  within  a  socket,  cov- 
ered by  an  external  shutter  adapted  to  close  "  as 
quick  as  a  wink."  The  ends  of  the  optic  nerves, 
denoted  the  retina,  are  placed  behind  a  watery 
lens,  with  an  aperture  arranged  to  be  automati- 
cally closed  by  too  intense  excitation  of  light.  The 
exterior  of  the  eye-ball  is  also  kept  constantly 
cooled  by  a  trickling  fountain  of  tears. 

By  these  ingenious  arrangements,  the  optic 
nerve  holds  communication  with  intensely  heated 
bodies  without  injury.  It  may  be  convenient  to 
give  different  names  to  the  sensations  produced 
by  the  transmission  of  electric  action  to  the  brain 
through  different  nerves ;  but  this  does  not  war- 
rant us  in  ascribing  the  ignition  of  a  fine  wire,  ex- 
cited by  the  discharge  of  an  electrical  jar,  to  three 
different  causes,  named  Heat,  Light,  and  Elec- 
tricity. As  well  might  the  transmission  of  electric 
action  through  three  different  telegraph  wires  to 
;a  telegraph  office,  be  ascribed  to  three  different 
agents  of  Nature. 


VIBRATIONS   OF  AIR   AND    ETHER.  63 


CHAPTER    IX. 

CORRESPONDING    VIBRATIONS    TRANSMITTED    BY   THE 
ATMOSPHERIC    AND    THE    ELECTRIC    ETHER. 

TV/TECH  AN  ICAL  impulses  imparted  to  the  par- 
ticles of  air  are  transmitted  in  currents  as 
winds ;  and  in  vibrations,  as  sounds.  Imparted  to 
the  electric  ether  they  are  similarly  transmitted  in 
currents  and  in  vibrations.  The  interchangeable 
vibrations  and  current  movements  of  the  electric 
and  atmospheric  ethers  are  illustrated  in  the  oper- 
ation of  the  Telephone.  Impulses  of  the  voice  as 
words,  or  musical  sounds,  excite  corresponding  syn- 
chronous vibrations  of  the  atmospheric  and  electric 
ethers,  producing  similar  vibrations  of  a  metallic 
disc  connected  with  telegraph  wires,  through  which 
they  pass  in  currents  to  a  second,  or  terminal,  disc. 
This  last  in  turn  transfers  them  to  the  adjacent 
particles  of  air,  which  vibrate  on  the  tympanum 
of  the  ear.  A  little  bony  malleus,  hung  against 
the  tympanum  like  a  knocker  on  a  door,  intensi- 
fies the  excitation  of  the  electric  ether  pervading 
the  conducting  nerve  leading  to  the  brain  ;  where, 
as  Galen  taught,  "the  spirit  enthroned  in  a  pure 
luciform  vehicle  "  receives  the  signals. 

When  closed   circuits   are  used,  the   transmis- 
sion is  by  means  of  currents,  which  will  be  here- 


64        VIBRATIONS    CONVERGED    BY    LENSES,  ETC. 

after  noticed.  The  elastic  vibrations  of  the  air 
and  electric  ether  are  thus  shown  to  correspond. 
To  converge  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  as  sounds, 
more  forcibly  against  the  tympanum  of  the  ear, 
ear-trumpets  are  used. 

Concave  arched  surfaces  of  domes  also  reflect 
the  vibrations  of  sounds. 

To  concentrate  the  vibrations  of  the  electric 
ether,  as  light,  more  powerfully  on  the  retina  of 
the  eye,  the  converging  lenses  of  telescopes  and 
concave  reflectors  are  used.  The  same  elec- 
tro-mechanical action  that  is  transmitted  to  the 
eye  as  light,  might  serve  for  a  telegraphic  com- 
munication from  the  sun,  or  even  from  the  great 
star  Sirius,  if  a  thermoscope  were  placed  at  the 
aperture  of  the  telescope  where  the  eye  is  usually 
adjusted.  The  light  would  produce  movements 
of  a  magnetic  needle,  similar  to  those  employed 
in  Wheatstone's  telegraph  for  transmitting  signals 
across  the  ocean. 

The  electric  ether  partakes  of  the  passive  char- 
acter of  all  matter  in  its  incapability  to  stop  itself 
when  put  in  motion.  Light  and  sound  are  per- 
petually transmitted.  The  continuous  progression 
of  light  through  infinite  space  is  graphically  illus- 
trated by  an  astronomer,  who  says:  "  In  adjust- 
ing my  telescope,  during  the  day,  toward  a  remote 
hillside,  I  beheld  some  boys  robbing  an  orchard. 
If  that  robbery  had  been  committed  on  a  remote 
star,  and  had  my  telescope  been  sufficiently  per- 


MUSICAL   TONES.  65 

feet,  I  might  have  seen  the  act  a  thousand  years 
after  it  was  committed."  It  would  seem  that  sun- 
beams are  recording  angels. 

VARIED  RAPIDITY  OF  VIBRATIONS  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  AND 
ATMOSPHERIC  ETHERS  PRODUCE  PRISMATIC  COLORS 
AND  MUSICAL  TONES. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  transmis- 
sion of  impulses  by  the  electric  and  atmospheric 
ethers  is  due  to  the  extreme  elasticity  and  light- 
ness of  the  former,  as  manifest  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  a  flash  of  lightning  with  the  velocity  of 
light  (one  hundred  and  ninety  thousand  miles  per 
second),  while  the  sound  of  thunder  traverses  the 
air  with  the  velocity  of  only  eleven  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  per  second. 

When  vibrations  of  the  air  impinge  against  the 
tympanum  of  the  ear  less  often  than  twenty-eight 
pulsations  in  a  second,  each  one  is  distinctly  heard; 
but  when  more  rapidly  repeated,  a  fresh  impulse 
is  received  before  the  tympanum  comes  to  a  state 
of  rest,  —  thus  producing  a  continuous  humming 
sound,  until  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  vibra- 
tions per  second  are  reached.  Then  the  regular 
musical  tone  of  the  bass  note,  c,  is  heard. 

By  increasing  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the 
air  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  to  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  per  second,  the  next  higher 
musical  tone  of  the  gamut  is  produced ;  and  so 
on  successively,  each  higher  note  up  to  one  hun- 

5 


66  PRISMATIC    COLORS. 

dred  and  sixty,  to  one  hundred  and  ninety-two,  to 
two  hundred  and  forty,  &c.,  until  twenty-five  thou- 
sand vibrations  per  second  are  reached.  Then 
the  tympanum  has  not  time  to  recoil  before  an- 
other impulse  arrives,  and  the  result  is  a  cessation 
of  tympanum  vibration,  recognized  as  silence.  So 
the  excessively  intense  vibrations  of  the  electric 
ether  imparted  to  the  retina  by  gazing  at  the 
dazzling  sun  produce  a  silence  of  vibrations,  or 
blindness,  corresponding  with  darkness.  "  Dark 
with  excess  of  light." 

In  like  manner,  the  prismatic  or  rainbow  colors 
are  produced  by  a  different  rapidity  of  vibration 
of  the  electric  ether ;  so  that  the  chromatic  scale 
of  musical  tones  of  the  gamut,  and  the  chromatic 
scale  of  colors,  depend  alike  on  the  different  rapid- 
ity of  the  vibrations  of  the  atmospheric  and  elec- 
tric ethers. 

Instruments  have  been  ingeniously  devised  for 
indicating  the  number  of  vibrations  per  second  of 
the  electric  ether,  requisite  to  produce  the  chro- 
matic scale  of  colors. 

As  sound  moves  with  the  velocity  of  eleven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  per  second,  by  dividing  this 
distance  by  the  number  of  aerial  vibrations  in  a 
second,  the  length  of  a  vibratory  wave  is  estimated. 
The  velocity  of  the  ether  producing  the  excitation 
of  light  being  one  hundred  and  ninety  thousand 
miles  per  second,  the  length  of  the  waves  of  colors 
is  similarly  estimated ;  as  shown  in  the  following 


VIBRATIONS    PRODUCING    COLORS. 


67 


TABLE  OF  VIBRATIONS  IN  CHROMATIC  SCALE  OF  COLORS. 


Prismatic  Colors. 

Number  of 
vibrations 
in  an  inch. 

Lengths  of  vi- 
brations in  parts 
of  an  inch. 

Vibrations  in  a 
second;  English 
notation. 

RED     

•30,180 

0.0000256 

477  billions 

4J,6lO 

O.OOOO24O 

<o6 

YELLOW  

A  A  OOO 

O  OOOO227 

0VJV-'           » 

ci  e 

GREEN      

47,460 

O.OOOO2  1  1 

OOJ            » 
C77 

BLUE 

cj  i  10 

622 

^4  O7O 

o  000018  s 

U44               „ 

6c8 

VIOLET 

57  AGO 

o  0000174 

600 

i/»W-' 

uyy        » 

The  slowest  vibrations  of  the  ether  are  first 
recognized  as  a  red  color,  which  corresponds  with 
the  slowest  vibrations  of  the  bass  note  of  the  musi- 
cal gamut ;  and  the  quickest  vibrations  appear  as 
the  violet  hue,  which  corresponds  with  the  high- 
est musical  note  audible :  for,  as  previously  stated, 
when  the  vibrations  of  the  air  exceed  a  certain 
limit,  the  tympanum  of  the  ear  has  not  time  to 
recoil  before  a  succeeding  impulse  arrives,  and 
it  remains  motionless.  So  the  retina  of  the 
eye  ceases  to  vibrate  beyond  the  limit  of  the  vio- 
let, and  darkness  follows.  Darkness  and  silence 
are,  therefore,  equivalents  of  the  cessation  of  vibra- 
tions of  the  retina  and  tympanum  respectively ;  as 
cold  is,  also,  of  the  cessation  of  vibrations  through 
the  fibres  of  the  nerves  of  feeling. 


68  THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 


CHAPTER    X. 

CONVERTIBILITY    OF    VIBRATIONS    OF    HEAT   INTO 
ELECTRIC    CURRENTS. 


n^HE  vibrations  of  the  electric  ether,  consti- 
tuting heat,  are  readily  converted  into  a 
current  in  one  determinate  direction  through  the 
circuit  of  a  conducting  wire,  so  as  to  turn  the 
needle  of  a  galvanometer,  by  merely  arranging  in 
contact  the  ends  of  two  bars  of  metal,  one  of 
them  a  good  electrode,  and  the  other  a  less  free 


Fig-   ii. 

electrode,  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp ;  as  represented 
in  Fig.  ii.  The  vibratory  movements  of  the 
ether  become  resolved  into  one  uniform  direction 
through  the  most  ready  conductor,  so  as  to  make 
a  closed  circuit;  as  denoted  by  the  direction  of 
the  arrows.  The  excitation  of  the  current  being 
caused  by  heat,  the  descriptive  name  of  Thermo- 
electricity has  been  given  to  this  mode  of  pro- 


THERMO-ELECTRIC     BATTERY.  69 

ducing  electric  currents.  The  two  kinds  of  metal 
conveniently  used  for  this  experiment  are  anti- 
mony and  bismuth,  or  German  silver  and  brass. 

Were  both  bars  of  equal  conducting  powers, 
the  equal  resistance  of  each  would  counterbalance 
the  other,  and  the  excitation  would  take  the  form 
of  molecular  vibrations  of  the  metals,  with  their 
gradual  heating  and  expansion. 

For  experimental  use,  small  thermo-electric 
batteries  are  compactly  made  with  little  strips 
of  metal,  duly  insulated  from  each 
other  by  intervening  varnished 
silk;  as  represented  by  Fig.  12. 
The  ends  of  the  conducting  wires 
are  inserted  in  the  screw  cups  x  y,  Fis'  "' 
to  lead  the  currents  in  a  circuit  around  a  galva- 
nometer needle.  This  is  so  sensitively  affected 
by  the  least  excitation  of  heat  applied  to  the  con- 
joined ends  of  the  combined  metallic  bars,  that 
the  combination  is  denoted  a  Thermoscope;  which 
is  a  far  more  delicate  test  of  heat  than  any  ther- 
mometer; ~  of  i°  of  Fahrenheit  being  sufficient 
to  move  the  galvanometer  needle.  The  bars  of 
antimony  and  bismuth  are  insulated  from  each 
other  by  varnished  silk,  with  their  alternate  ends 
soldered  together.  This  arrangement,  for  very 
delicate  experimental  purposes,  is  used  at  a  p 
with  a  reflector,  as  represented  by  Fig.  13, 
with  screens  and  tubes  adapted  to  exclude  col- 
lateral radiations.  To  prevent  currents  of  air,  the 


70 


THERM  OSCOPE 


y 

galvanometer  is  covered  with  glass,  f,  connected 
with  the  apparatus  by  conducting  wires,  h  g.  The 
galvanometer  needle  is  suspended  by  a  single 


Fig.  13. 

flexible  fibre  of  silk.  The  intensity  of  the  thermo- 
electric excitation  is  denoted  by  the  extent  of 
divergency  of  the  needle.  The  heat  of  the  body 


ROTATION    PRODUCED    BY    HEAT.  71 

of  a  person  approaching  within  thirty  feet  of  this 
instrument,  and  even  of  the  bodies  of  insects,  of 
phosphorescent  wood,  putrifying  fish,  &c.,  are  de- 
tected by  the  motion  of  the  needle,  as  stated  by 
Nobili  and  Melloni. 

An  ingenious  experimenter,  Dr.  Locke,  of 
Ohio,  describes  in  "  Silliman's  Journal "  a  thermo- 
scope  with  a  current  changer  affixed  thereto  for 
reversing  the  connections,  whereby  a  needle 
weighing  one  and  one  half  ounces  was  made  to 
revolve  by  the  heat  of  his  finger,  by  timely  rever- 
sals of  the  currents. 

It  may  seem  surprising  that  the  use  of  a  lump 
of  ice,  instead  of  a  lamp  flame,  will  produce 
movements  of  the  galvanometer  needle.  A  bat- 
tery is  made  (Fig.  14)  by  applying  a  frigorific 
mixture  on  the  bars  at  A,  and  a  plate  of  heated 


iron,  E,  at  their  lower  ends.  On  the  upper 
ends  of  the  metallic  wires,  packed  together 
with  insulating  varnished  silk,  and  inclosed 
in  a  curb,  B,  is  placed  pounded  ice  or  snow, 
with  some  salt  representing  the  polar  seas;  and 
beneath  the  lower  extremities  of  the  wires  is 


72        LIGHT    AND    COLORS    PRODUCED    BY  HEAT. 

arranged  the  plate  of  hot  iron,  E,  representing  the 
torrid  region  of  the  earth.  With  these  extremes 
of  temperature,  the  excitation  is  intensified  suffi- 
ciently to  produce  bright  electric  flashes,  and 
other  electric  phenomena,  corresponding  with 
those  developed  by  electrical  machines.  By 
transmitting  this  electric  excitation  through  void 
space  in  a  bell-glass,  the  flashings  of  the  aurora 
borealis  are  represented,  as  before  stated.  Be- 
tween the  polar  seas  composed  of  salt  water  and 
ice,  and  the  torrid  zone  heated  by  sunshine,  there 
are  north  and  south  currents,  above  the  terrestrial 
currents  circulating  from  east  to  west,  which  ap- 
pear occasionally  as  "  the  northern  lights "  or 
aurora,  crossing  the  terrestrial  currents,  and  con- 
sequently disturbing  magnetic  needles  on  the 
earth's  surface  beneath  them.  Every  local  dis- 
turbance of  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface, 
by  inducing  excitation  of  currents  transverse  to 
those  regularly  circulating  from  east  to  west 
about  the  earth,  disturbs  and  agitates  the  com- 
pass needle. 

The  following  experiment  is  of  practical  inter- 
est. An  experimenter  arranged  a  sheet  of  copper 
and  of  iron,  with  one  of  the  ends  of  each  in  con- 
tact, within  the  flue  from  a  furnace.  The  other 
end  of  each  plate  he  connected  by  a  wire,  extended 
to  an  office  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  distant, 
making  a  circuit  about  a  galvanometer  needle. 
He  states  that  he  was  thus  enabled  to  know  the 


RED-HOT  IRON  ESTIMATED  IN  FOOT-POUNDS.        73 

intensity  of  heat  in  the  furnace  flue,  by  the  move-' 
ment  of  the  magnetic  needle,  which  performed  the 
functions  of  a  thermometer. 

This  experiment  illustrates,  on  a  minute  scale, 
the  frequent  movements  of  compass  needles,  ob- 
servable when  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are 
produced  by  sunshine  and  cold  storms  in  adjacent 
localities,  and  more  especially  while  the  flashes  of 
the  aurora  borealis  occur.  The  eruption  of  red- 
hot  lava  from  volcanoes,  and  other  causes,  are 
found  to  produce  nearly  simultaneous  perturba- 
tions of  compass-needles  all  over  the  globe,  as 
verified  in  national  magnetic  observatories. 

The  ready  conversion  of  heat  into  electric  cur- 
rents, that  transmit  the  excitation  to  remote  dis- 
tances over  the  earth's  surface,  accounts  for  the 
sudden  disappearance  of  heat  on  the  condensa- 
tion of  steamy  vapors  of  thunder-clouds,  and  vari- 
ous phenomena  of  "  latent  heat." 

Taking  for  a  basis  of  calculation  the  mechan- 
ical action  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two 
foot-pounds  as  the  equivalent  of  the  molecular 
vibration  of  one  pound  of  water,  in  raising  its  tem- 
perature one  degree  from  39°  to  40°  Fahrenheit, 
and  estimating  the  temperature  of  red-hot  iron  at 
about  1000°,  and  assuming  the  increment  of  heat 
in  iron  to  be  the  same  as  in  water  (772  x  1000  =), 
77 2,000  foot-pounds  may  represent  the  intensity 
of  molecular  vibration  of  a  pound  of  red-hot  iron ; 
and  may  serve  also  to  indicate  the  extent  of  me- 


74        CHANGES  OF  COLOR  BY  HEAT. 

chanical  force  requisite  to  render  a  pound  of  iron 
red-hot.  The  molecular  vibrations  of  the  iron 
excite  vibrations  of  the  electric  ether  pervading 
the  particles  of  surrounding  air,  and  transmit  the 
impulses  to  the  retina  of  the  eye,  producing  the 
sensation  of  a  red  color;  and  to  the  nerves  of  feel- 
ing, producing  a  sensation  of  heat.  In  suddenly 
cooling  hot  steel  by  the  process  of  tempering,  the 
surface  exhibits  the  changing  colors  from  a  white 
heat  to  red,  orange,  purple,  violet,  and  blue ;  the 
latter  representing  the  elastic  molecular  state  of 
blue  watch-springs.  These  facts  indicate  that 
there  is  a  chromatic  scale  of  molecular  vibrations 
developing  colors,  corresponding  with  those  of  the 
atmospheric  and  electric  ethers  developing  musi- 
cal tones. 

The  remarkable  flitting  colors  on  the  surface  of 
heated  steel  are  due  to  the  gradual  union  of  mole- 
cules of  oxygen  with  the  carbonized  iron.  Thus, 
metallic  oxides  serve  as  pigments,  in  their  peculiar 
molecular  conditions  of  union  with  oxygen  and 
carbon. 

MOLECULAR    VIBRATION    ADOPTED    AS    A   TEST    OF 
HEAT. 

The  vibration  of  molecules  of  mercury  in  the 
bulb  of  a  thermometer,  and  their  consequent  oc- 
cupancy of  more  space,  denoted  Expansion,  is 
adopted  as  a  standard  test  of  heat;  precisely  as 
the  extent  of  reciprocal  divergency  of  the  pith- 


THERMOMETRIC    SCALES.  75 

balls  of  electroscopes  is  adopted  as  a  standard 
test  of  electric  excitation.  The  extent  of  mechan- 
ical action  is  therefore  the  standard  test  of  the 
excitation  of  both  heat  and  electricity.  Various 
scales  of  degrees  of  expansion  are  adopted  in  ther- 
mometers for  measuring  the  extent  of  vibration 
of  molecules  produced  by  heat.  Reaumur's  ther- 
mometer is  graduated  into  eighty  equal  parts  of  a 
glass  tube,  ranging  between  the  freezing  and  boil- 
ing points  of  water,  with  a  minus  scale  of  degrees 
extended  below  the  freezing  point.  The  ther- 
mometer invented  by  Celsius  has  100°  between 
the  freezing  and  boiling  points,  with  a  similar 
minus  scale.  Fahrenheit,  to  obtain  a  greater 
range  of  degrees,  adopted  the  extremely  low 
temperature  produced  by  a  frigorific  mixture  of 
snow,  or  ice,  and  salt,  as  a  zero  point,  with  a  grad- 
uation of  32°  to  the  ordinary  freezing  point  of 
water,  and  212°  to  the  boiling  point. 

Different  kinds  of  substances  have  each  a 
peculiar  extent  of  molecular  vibration,  and  con- 
sequent expansion.  Mercury,  being  the  most  uni- 
form between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points,  is 
selected  for  use  in  the  bulbs  of  thermometers. 

VIBRATION  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  ETHER  EXCITES   VIBRA- 
TION   IN    PARTICLES    OF   ALL    MATTER. 

The  particles  of  all  kinds  of  bodies  —  solid,  liq- 
uid, and  aeriform  —  are  made  to  vibrate  by  heat, 
and  transmit  action  by  means  of  the  electric  me- 


76  MOLECULAR   VIBRATION    AS    HEAT. 

dium  pervading  the  particles  of  the  atmosphere, 
so  as  to  reach  the  nerves  of  sight, 
feeling,  and  hearing.  This  is  veri- 
fied by  Trevelyan's  experiment  with 
a  semicylindrical  piece  of  heated 
brass,  B,  resting  on  a  piece  of  cold 
lead,  L,  Fig.  15.  The  lead  being 
a  slow  conductor  of  heat,  the  vibrations  of  the 
particles  produce  a  rocking  of  the  brass,  B,  like  a 
cradle,  and  at  the  same  time  an  audible  vibration 
of  the  air,  like  that  of  the  glass  plate  of  a  harmon- 
icon.  The  vibrations  produced  by  combustion  of 
a  jet  of  gas  within  a  glass  tube  cause  a  similar 
musical  sound. 

It  is  the  rapid  and  violent  vibration  of  the 
molecules  of  hot  bodies  that  causes  the  stinging 
sensations  they  produce,  like  those  by  a  blow  of  a 
rod  on  the  skin,  with  the  result  of  similar  con- 
tusions and  blisters  of  the  epidermis.  Scalding 
and  burning  of  the  skin  are  wounds  produced 
by  the  molecular  vibration  of  heated  bodies. 

If  the  vibration  of  sunshine  be  intensified  by 
lenses  upon  mercury  to  680°  Fahrenheit,  it  boils 
like  water ;  and  the  particles  are  separated  so  far 
asunder  as  to  occupy  more  space  than  an  equal 
weight  of  particles  of  surrounding  air,  and  to  as- 
cend buoyantly  as  mercurial  vapor.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  the  vibration,  or  heat,  be  reduced  to  39° 
below  zero  (Fahrenheit),  the  terrestrial  electro- 
magnetic currents  predominate,  polarizing  and 


SOLID,    LIQUID,    AND    AERIFORM    STATES.          77 

uniting  the  molecules  of  mercury  in  crystals  of 
frozen  solid  metal,  resembling  silver. 

Between  39°  and  680°  the  molecules  of  mercury 
remain  in  an  equilibrial  state,  wherein  neither  the 
magnetic  nor  the  diamagnetic  currents  predom- 
inate. In  this  condition  of  equilibrium,  the  mole- 
cules of  mercury  have  freedom  to  roll  quickly  over 
one  another  in  the  liquid  state ;  from  whence  this 
metal  derives  its  descriptive  name  of  "  quick- 
silver." 

This  example  of  the  solid,  liquid,  and  vapory 
conditions  of  mercury  represents  the  solid,  liquid, 
and  ae'riform  conditions  of  all  other  kinds  of  ele- 
mentary substances ;  including  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  nitrogen,  as  experimentally  verified  by  Pictet 
and  others. 

The  contraction  and  expansion  of  fluids  in 
thermometers  show  the  alternate  predominance 
of  the  electro-magnetic  currents  induced  by  the 
axial  rotation  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  magneto- 
electric  vibrations  induced  by  the  orbital  rev- 
olution. 


78       HEAT,  ELECTRIC  AND  MOLECULAR  VIBRATION. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

POPULAR    DOCTRINES  OF   ELECTRIC   AND   MOLECULAR 
VIBRATION,    DENOTED    HEAT. 

HE  RE  are  so  many  theories  of  heat  and  light 
as  sources  of  motive -power,  that  our  limits 
will  permit  us  to  notice  but  a  few  of  the  most 
recent. 

A  summary  of  existing  scientific  opinions,  orig- 
inating from  distinguished  philosophers  and  chem- 
ists, appears  to  be  embodied  in  a  treatise  on  "  Heat 
Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion,"  by  John  Tyn- 
dall.1  Other  more  definite  treatises  have  been 
written  at  various  times,  from  which  this  popular 
writer  has  gleaned  various  views. 

He  begins  the  investigation  with  the  following 
words :  — 

"What  is  the  agent  by  means  of  which  we  can  over- 
power the  force  of  the  winds  and  rivers  ?  The  achieve- 
ments of  heat  by  the  steam-engine  have  impressed  upon 
thinking  minds  this  important  question." 

He  continues :  — 

"Let  us  commence  our  researches  with  heart  and 
hope.  If  we  succeed,  we  shall  satisfy,  to  an  extent 

1  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1867. 


MR.    TYNDALL   GIVES    NO    SOLUTION.  79 

before  unknown,  the  love  of  systematic  order  and  har- 
mony, which  is  implanted  in  every  mind." 

The  result  of  his  interesting  inquiry  is  the  final 
conclusion,  that  "  heat  is  a  mode  of  motion,"  —  a 
conclusion  anticipated  by  Bacon  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago;  who  said,  that  "all 
knowledge  of  heat  is  limited  to  ideas  of  a  peculiar 
mode  of  motion,  produced  by  some  unexplained 
cause."  Others  have  considered  the  reciprocal 
divergency  of  particles  by  absorption  of  heat  (de- 
noted expansion),  to  be  somewhat  analogous  to 
the  swelling  of  a  sponge  by  the  absorption  of 
water. 

As  to  what  moves,  or  is  put  in  motion,  or  is  the 
cause  of  the  motion  which  develops  the  phenom- 
enon of  heat,  Mr.  Tyndall  gives  no  solution :  he 
leaves  it,  as  Bacon  left  it,  an  "  unexplained  cause." 

To  illustrate  how  heat  is  produced  by  motion, 
Mr.  Tyndall  and  other  chemists  refer  to  the  mo- 
tion of  a  hammer  in  pounding  a  piece  of  lead,  or 
iron  on  an  anvil ;  whereby  the  metal  is  speedily 
rendered  hot. 

Mr.  Tyndall  affirms :  — 

"  The  dynamic  power  of  heat  is  due  to  what  is  called 
chemical  affinity,  which  is  a  pure  attraction  of  the  same 
mechanical  quality  as  gravity  ;  causing  every  oxygen 
atom,  in  the  process  of  the  combustion  of  a  diamond  in 
oxygen  gas,  to  strike  against  its  surface,  and  to  transfer 
its  motion,  by  collision,  into  the  mode  of  motion  we  call 
heat. 


8o  "IDEAS  VERY  UNSETTLED. 

"  The  ideas  of  the  best-informed  philosophers  are  as 
yet  very  unsettled  as  regards  the  exact  nature  of  heat. 
The  great  starting-point  is  to  regard  heat  as  motion  of 
some  kind;  leaving  its  more  precise  character  to  be 
dealt  with  by  other  investigators." 

The  sensation  of  heat,  produced  by  its  action 
on  the  nerves  of  feeling,  he  explains  in  the  follow- 
ing words :  — 

"  The  impression  of  heat  which  one  receives  on  enter- 
ing the  hot  room  of  a  Turkish  bath,  is  caused  by  the 
atomic  cannonade  which  is  there  maintained  Against 
the  surface  of  the  body."1 

He  further  specifies :  — 

"  We  are  to  figure  a  gaseous  body  as  one  whose  par- 
ticles are  flying  in  straight  lines  through  space ;  imping- 
ing, like  little  projectiles,  upon  each  other,  and  striking 
against  the  boundaries  of  the  space  which  they  occupy. 
...  So  likewise  in  regard  to  forming  steam  :  the  heat  is 
consumed  in  pulling  asunder  the  liquid  particles  of  water, 
and  in  conferring  upon  them  a  still  greater  amount  of 
potential  energy.  .  .  .  When  the  heat  is  withdrawn,  the 
vapor  condenses,  and  the  particles  again  clash  together 
with  a  dynamic  energy  equal  to  that  which  was  employed 
to  separate  them.  The  heat  then  reappears.  .  .  . 

"  The  disappearance  of  heat,  which  enters  bodies 
while  changing  from  solids  to  liquids,  and  from  liquids 
to  aeriform  states,  is  ascribed  to  internal  work  done 
among  the  molecules, —  which  is  latent  heat ;  the  exter- 
nal work  being  denoted  sensible  heat.  .  .  . 

"  The  percussion  of  the  earth  against  the  central  orb 
of  the  solar  system  would  produce  an  extent  of  heat 
equal  to  that  producible  by  the  combustion  of  fourteen 

1  Heat  considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion,  lecture  iii. 


"A    WARFARE    OF    MOLECULES."  8 1 

globes  of  carbon,  each  equal  in  magnitude  to  the  globe 
of  the  earth." 

Mr.  Balfour  Stewart  very  graphically  describes 
the  clashing  of  molecules  by  chemical  affinity,  in  a 
comparison  with  a  conflict  between  soldiers  on  a 
battle-field ;  where  many  are  wounded,  and  some 
"  run  away,  and  live  to  fight  another  day :  "  — 

"  There  is  a  warfare  going  on  in  the  clashing  together 
of  the  molecules,  which,  although  continually  maimed, 
yet  always  recover  themselves  ;  until  perhaps  some  effec- 
tive blow  is  struck,  which  dissevers  them  from  com- 
pound substances." 

Mr.  Tyndall  explains  the  extent  of  heat  de- 
veloped by  the  clashing  of  molecules  in  the  pro- 
cess of  combustion  of  one  pound  of  hydrogen 
with  eight  pounds  of  oxygen,  in  the  formation  of 
water,  as  follows :  — 

"  We  find  that  the  concussion  of  one  pound  of  hydro- 
gen with  eight  pounds  of  oxygen  is  equal  in  mechanical 
value  to  the  raising  of  forty-seven  million  pounds  one 
foot  high.  I  think  I  did  not  overrate  matters  when  I 
previously  said  that  the  force  of  gravity,  as  exerted  near 
the  earth,  is  almost  a  vanishing  quantity,  in  comparison 
with  the  molecular  forces  developed.  Bear  in  mind,  too, 
the  distances  which  separate  the  molecules  before  com- 
bination ;  distances  so  small,  as  to  be  utterly  immeasu- 
rable. Still,  it  is  in  passing  over  these  minute  distances 
that  the  molecules  acquire  a  velocity  sufficient  to  cause 
them  to  clash  together  with  this  tremendous  energy.  .  .  . 

"  After  this  combination  of  the  molecules  of  one 
pound  of  hydrogen  with  eight  pounds  of  oxygen,  form- 
irig  nine  pounds  of  water  in  the  state  of  steam  of  212°, 

6 


82  "  WILD    STONE-AVALANCHES." 

the  particles  of  steam  next  fall  together  by  condensation 
into  liquid  water.  The  mechanical  value  of  this  second 
act  is  calculated  by  multiplying  the  nine  pounds  of  steam 
by  966°  of  latent  heat  =  8,694  pounds  of  water  heated  i° 
of  Fah't  ;  which,  reduced  to  foot-pounds  by  multiplying 
by  772  (Joule's  standard),  we  have  6,711,768  foot-pounds 
as  the  mechanical  value  of  the  mere  act  of  conden- 
sation. .  .  . 

"  The  next  great  fall  of  our  nine  pounds  of  water  is 
from  the  state  of  a  liquid  to  that  of  solid  ice,  the  mechan- 
ical standard  value  of  which  act  is  equal  to  nine  hundred 
and  ninety-three  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-four 
foot-pounds.  .  .  . 

"  Thus  our  nine  pounds  of  water,  in  its  original  forma- 
tion and  progress  into  ice,  falls  down  three  great  preci- 
pices, which  may  be  estimated  by  the  fall  of  a  ton  weight 
down  the  first  precipice  twenty-two  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  high ;  the  second,  by  the  fall  of  a 
ton  down  a  precipice  twenty-nine  hundred  feet  high  ; 
and  the  third  fall,  by  the  descent  of  a  ton  down  a  preci- 
pice four  hundred  and  ninety-six  feet  high.  .  .  . 

"  The  number  of  foot-pounds  of  mechanical  force  de- 
veloped by  the  three  successive  clashings  of  the  one 
pound  of  molecules  of  hydrogen,  and  eight  pounds  of 
molecules  of  oxygen,  is  thus  estimated  by  the  fall  of  a 
ton  nearly  five  miles  ;  and  is  equivalent  to  over  fifteen 
hundred  horse-power." 

Overwhelmed  by  such  truly  astonishing  and 
"  tremendous "  mechanical  results,  the  professor 
finally  gives  utterance  to  his  astonishment  in  the 
following  graphic  words  :  — 

"  I  have  seen  the  wild  stone-avalanches  of  the  Alps, 
which  thunder  down  the  precipices  with  a  vehemence 
almost  sufficient  to  stun  the  observer.  I  have  also  seen 


TABLE  OF  FAVRE  AND  SILBERMANN.      83 

snow-flakes  descending  so  softly  as  not  to  break  their 
fragile  spangles.  Yet  to  produce  from  aeriform  gases  a 
quantity  of  that  tender  material,  which  a  child  might  lift, 
demands  an  exertion  of  energy  competent  to  gather  up 
the  shattered  blocks  of  the  largest  stone-avalanches  I 
have  ever  seen,  and  project  them  to  twice  the  height 
from  which  they  fell."  l 

Favre  and  Silbermann  have  applied  the  British 
thermal  unit  (seven  hundred  and  seventy -two 
foot-pounds),  to  measure  the  quantity  of  heat  im- 
parted to  bodies  to  change  their  component  par- 
ticles from  solid  to  liquid  states,  and  from  liquid 
to  aeriform  states,  in  carrying  out  the  dynamic 
theory  of  heat  as  "  a  mode  of  motion."  They  give 
the  following  calculation  of  the  extent  of  action 
developed  by  "  the  clashing  of  one  pound  of  mole- 
cules of  hydrogen  with  eight  pounds  of  molecules 
of  oxygen,  in  the  process  of  combustion,  producing 
nine  pounds  of  water." 

DYNAMIC   ACTION   OF  MOLECULES. 


Combustible. 

Lbs.  of  Oxygen. 

Lbs.  of  Atmos- 
pheric Air 
required  for 
combustion. 

Total  Heat 
British  Units 
of  772  Ibs.  ea. 

Evaporative 
Power  from 

212°. 

Units. 

Ibs.  of  Water. 

i  Ib.  Hydrogen  Gas 

+  8  =  9lbs.Water. 

36  Ibs. 

62.032 

64-2 

i  Ib.  of  Carbon  .  .  . 

f  +  2.67  =  3-67  ) 
(  Carb.  Acid  Gas.  j 

12      „ 

14.500 

15-0 

i  Ib.  Coal  Gas  ... 

+  3.43  =  4.43    „ 

*5  43  „ 

2i,344 

22   I 

Another  chemist  explains  the  clashings  and  en- 
counters of  molecules  in  the  following  words :  — 


1  Heat  considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion,  Lecture  V.     By  John  Tyn- 
dall,  F.  R.  S. 


84      PROF.  COOKE  AND  DR.  CARPENTER. 

"  When  two  molecules  come  within  a  certain  distance 
of  each  other,  a  mutual  action  takes  place  between  them  ; 
which  may  be  compared  to  the  encounter  of  two  billiard- 
balls." 

In  a  recent  paper,  Professor  J.  P.  Cooke  ex- 
plains the  theory  of  molecular  vibrations  in  the 
following  words :  — 

% 

"  Conceive  what  a  molecular  storm  must  be  raging 
about  us,  and  how  it  must  beat  against  our  bodies,  and 
every  other  exposed  surface.  The  molecules  of  our 
atmosphere  move  on  an  average  nearly  four  times  slower 
than  those  of  hydrogen  under  the  same  conditions  ;  but 
as  they  weigh  about  fourteen  and  a  half  times  more  than 
the  hydrogen  molecules,  they  strike  with  equal  energy. 
Do  not  think  the  effect  of  the  blows  insignificant,  be- 
cause the  molecular  projectiles  are  so  small ;  for  they 
make  up  by  their  number  for  their  small  size.  Consider, 
for  example,  that  a  cubic  yard  of  air  contains  over  two 
pounds  of  molecules,  which  are  vibrating  with  an  aver- 
age velocity  of  sixteen  hundred  feet  a  second,  equivalent 
to  that  of  a  cannon-ball  of  equal  weight  rushing  at  the 
same  tremendous  rate.  If  the  movements  of  the  mole- 
cules were  all  turned  to  one  direction,  instead  of  opposite 
vibratory  directions,  even  the  massy  pyramids  could  not 
withstand  this  destructive  violence.  In  the  midst  of 
this  molecular  tornado,  our  preservation  depends  on  the 
beating  of  the  storm  in  opposite  directions  ;  and  so  pre- 
cisely counteracting,  that  we  are  wholly  unconscious  of 
the  tumult  of  molecular  forces." 

These  molecular  vibrations  are  discovered  by 
the  microscope  continually  taking  place  to  such  an 
extent,  that  Dr.  Carpenter  cautions  microscopists 
not  to  mistake  them  for  vital  forces.  The  vibra- 


CONTINUAL    VIBRATION    OF    MOLECULES.          85 

tions  of  molecules  are  described  as  being  "  an  in- 
cessant quivering,  with  so  quick  a  motion  as  to 
render  it  difficult  to  follow  out  the  course  of  any 
one  single  particle,  while  changing  its'  direction 
fifteen  or  twenty  times  a  second." 

Professor  Jevons  describes  these  movements 
as  "  the  leaping  of  atoms,  while  freely  movable 
as  liquids." 

The  preceding  statements  are  presented  to  show 
the  fact  of  the  continual  and  rapid  vibration  of  the 
molecules  of  terrestrial  matter,  which  we  have  as- 
cribed to  the  momentum  of  the  planets. 

Every  molecule,  even  of  solid  bodies,  being  sur- 
rounded by  the  electric  ether,  has  a  certain  scope 
and  extent  of  vibration,  and  continually  trembles 
from  the  original  impress  of  the  Almighty  Power, 
primarily  imparted  to  the  vast  orbs  of  the  solar 
system. 

Each  molecule,  while  subjected  on  all  sides  to 
equal  and  oppositely  directed  vibrations,  is  held 
in  an  unstable,  electrostatic  condition.  It  is  ever 
ready  to  yield  to  the  vibrations  against  one  side, 
when  the  counterbalancing  vibrations  are  diverted 
from  the  opposite  side. 

When  the  vibratory  action  predominates  against 
one  side,  a  resultant  movement  is  so  instantane- 
ously produced  as  to  resemble  inherent  self- 
motive  power  in  the  molecules. 


86  VIBRATIONS    MODIFIED   BY   CURRENTS. 

DIFFUSION    OF    THE    MOMENTUM    OF    THE    SOLAR    SYS- 
TEM   BY    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS    AND    VIBRATIONS. 

The  vibrations  diffused  through  the  universal 
electric  ether  by  the  orbital  revolutions  of  the 
planets,  are  modified  by  the  currents  excited  by 
their  axial  rotation. 

The  various  movements  of  matter  on  the  earth's 
surface  are  produced  by  modification,  by  diffu- 
sion, and  change  of  direction,  of  this  grand  motive- 
power.  The  planets,  in  rushing  through  the  elec- 
tric ether,  produce  vibrations  that  are  continually 
impinging  against  the  surfaces  of  all  molecules  and 
bodies  surrounded  and  permeated  by  the  ether. 
These  vibrations,  when  intervening  between  two 
molecules  or  bodies,  would  force  them  asunder 
were  they  not  counterbalanced  by  vibrations  im- 
pinging against  their  outer  sides.  On  bringing 
together  two  molecules,  or  bodies,  they  partially 
screen  one  another  from  the  force  of  the  vibra- 
tions around  them, — as  the  inner  shores  of  two 
adjacent  islands  in  the  ocean  are  screened,  leaving 
their  outer  sides  subject  to  undiminished  impulses 
from  the  waves.  A  change  of  direction  in  the  un- 
dulations of  the  water  may  be  effected  by  a  cur- 
rent of  wind  which  drives  'the  waves  off  shore,  or, 
blowing  parallel  with  the  shore,  neutralizes  their 
action  upon  it. 

That  the  vibrations  of  water  and  atmospheric 
and  electric  ethers  can  be  neutralized,  admits  of 


RESULTANT    OF    CURRENTS    AND   VIBRATIONS.     87 

demonstration.  Hold  vertically  two  parallel  sheets 
of  paper,  while  blowing  a  current  of  air  from  the 
mouth  between  them.  The  current  changes  a 
part  of  the  atmospheric  vibrations  at  right  angles 
with  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  sheets  of  paper  to  a 
corresponding  current  parallel  with  their  adjacent 
surfaces,  and  thus  partially  neutralizes  their  action. 
The  vibrations  against  the  outer  sides  of  the  sheets 
of  paper,  relieved  of  counteracting  force,  predom- 
inate, and  propel  the  two  sheets  toward  each  other ; 
producing  a  resultant  movement  by  the  combined 
action  of  the  vibrations  without,  and  a  current  be- 
tween them. 

A  similar  resultant  movement  of  two  bodies 
takes  place,  by  converting  the  vibrations  of  the 
electric  ether  between  their  adjacent  sides  into 
currents,  as  described  in  Chapter  XII.;  whereby 
resultant  movements  of  two  parallel  conducting 
wires  are  produced  reciprocally  toward  each  other, 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  currents 
through  them,  —  exhibiting  the  phenomenon  of 
Attraction. 

When  two  surfaces  are  thoroughly  in  contact,  as 
of  glutinous,  or  homogeneous  bodies,  the  vibrations 
and  currents  between  their  inner  surfaces  cease, 
leaving  the  vibrations  against  their  outer  surfaces 
to  predominate ;  holding  them  together,  and  pro- 
ducing the  phenomena  of  Adhesion  and  Cohesion. 

The  orbital  revolutions  of  the  planets  transmit 
vibrations  on  a  sublime  scale  through  the  electric 


88      ROTATION   OF   PLANETS   EXCITES   CURRENTS. 

ether,  which  pervades  infinite  space.  The  axial  ro- 
tations produce  continuous  electric  currents  about 
every  planet  and  molecule ;  and,  modified  and  com- 
bined, these  produce  all  the  phenomena  of  molec- 
ular movements  and  of  Universal  Gravitation. 

As  before  stated,  the  vibrations  of  the  electric 
ether,  excited  by  all  the  stellar  suns,  are  trans- 
mitted through  the  earth's  atmosphere  sufficiently 
to  act  on  the  retina  of  the  eye  as  starlight,  though 
too  feeble  to  act  on  the  nerves  of  feeling  as  heat, 
or  on  the  tympanum  of  the  ear  as  sound. 

The  Telephone  transmits  synchronous  vibra- 
tions through  the  electric  and  atmospheric  ethers. 
The  vibrations  of  the  air,  excited  by  the  human 
voice,  act  on  the  metallic  disc  of  the  Phonograph, 
causing  a  pointed  wire  to  indent  a  sheet  of  tin-foil. 
The  same  pointed  wire  may  be  made  to  act  as  a 
pawl  and  rotate  a  ratchet  wheel,  which  will  turn  a 
little  balance  wheel  with  surprising  rapidity ;  as 
stated  by  Mr.  Edison. 

A  piston,  like  the  disc  of  a  phonograph,  is 
acted  upon  by  the  atmospheric  vibrations  (excited 
by  the  planetary  force  transmitted  through  the  all- 
pervading  ether),  with  a  force  not  only  sufficient 
to  indent  tin-foil,  but  equivalent  to  a  continuous 
pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  on  each  square  inch 
on  both  sides  of  the  piston;  which  counterbal- 
ance each  other,  and  produce  no  movement,  until 
the  vibrations,  impinging  against  one  side  of  the 
piston,  are  neutralized,  or  counteracted. 


CURRENTS    COUNTERACT    VIBRATIONS. 


Then  the  continuous  vibrations  of  the  air 
against  the  one  side  of  the  piston  predominate, 
and,  being  relieved  from  the  action  of  an  equal 
force  on  the  other  side,  produce  a  resultant  move- 
ment of  the  piston.  Instead  of  the  complex  ap- 
paratus of  an  air-pump  for  producing  a  vacuum, 
a  simple  plan  is  employed  in  the  mechanics  of 
Nature,  by  merely  changing  the  vibrations  im- 
pinging directly  against  the  surface  of  a  body 
to  another  direction  parallel  with  the  surface. 

Jet-pumps  constructed  on  this  peculiar  principle 
are  now  used  instead  of  air-pumps,  to  produce  a 
vacuum  for  raising  water  by  atmospheric  pressure. 
A  swift  current  of  air,  of  steam,  or  of  water,  in 
a  jet  from  the  pipe  A,  will  convert  the  atmospheric 
vibrations  into  a  rectilinear  current  through  the 
pipe  c  ;  as  represented  in  Fig.  16. 

The  atmospheric  vibrations  in  the  pipe  B,  im- 
mersed in  water,  are  changed  from  a  vertical  di- 
rection against  the 
surface  of  the  water 
at  the  lower  end  of 
the  pipe  B,  to  a  hor- 
izontal direction  in 
the  pipe  c,  parallel 
with  the  surface  of 
the  water.  By  thus 
relieving  the  water 
in  the  lower  end  of 
the  pipe  B  from  ver-  fif.  16. 


QO       CURRENTS  PRODUCE  A  VACUUM. 

tical  atmospheric  vibrations,  while  their  action  on 
the  surface  of  the  surrounding  water  continues 
undiminished,  the  external  vibrations  predominate, 
forcing  the  water  to  ascend  in  the  perpendicular 
pipe  B,  and  to  flow  in  a  continuous  stream  from 
the  end  of  the  pipe  c. 

A  similar  arrangement,  called  "  Gifford's 
Injector,"  is  now  commonly  used  for  feeding 
steam-boilers  as  a  convenient  substitute  for  a 
forcing  pump.1 

A  beautiful  illustration  of  the  impinging  of 
vibrations  against  the  sides  of  bodies  is  seen  in 
placing  a  light  ball  or  globe  in  contact  with  the 
ascending  current  of  a  jet  oTeau.  The  ball  rises 
with  the  current  and  clings  to  it ;  being  propelled 
up  as  often  as  it  tends  to  fall.  The  ascending 
stream  converts  the  atmospheric  vibrations  against 
the  side  of  the  ball  next  the  stream  into  paral- 
lel currents ;  whereby  the  continuous  vibrations 
against  the  outer  side  of  the  ball  predominate, 
and  produce  a  resultant  movement  of  the  ball 
toward  the  centre  of  the  stream. 

As  with  terrestrial  so  with  celestial  magnetic 
currents ;  the  stronger  will  always  overpower  the 

1 A  simple  plan  of  producing  an  atmospheric  vacuum,  as  a  substitute 
for  an  air-pump,  is  also  used  on  railroads  for  operating  brakes  to  check 
the  speed  of  locomotives.  The  blast  of  a  jet  of  steam  over  the  end  of  a 
pipe  connected  with  a  cylinder  having  two  movable  pistons,  arranged  as 
air-tight  heads,  forms  a  vacuum  in  the  cylinder,  that  allows  the  external 
vibrations  to  press  simultaneously  against  both  of  the  movable  pistons, 
producing  their  resultant  movement  toward  the  middle  of  the  exhausted 
cylinder.  Rods  attached  to  each  of  the  two  piston-heads  then  draw  in  the 
friction  brakes  against  the  rims  of  the  wheels,  and  check  their  speed. 


SUN    INDUCES    TERRESTRIAL    CURRENTS.          9 1 

weaker,  causing  the  latter  to  conform  in  direction 
about  their  nearest  sides. 

According  to  this  law,  as  the  earth  turns  on  its 
axis  from  west  to  east,  and  the  terrestrial  currents 
move  from  east  to  west,  we  may  draw  the  inference 
that  these  terrestrial  currents  are  overpowered  by 
the  huge  sun-magnet  and  made  to  revolve  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  solar  currents,  conforming 
in  direction  about  their  nearest  sides.  The  solar 
currents  must  therefore  move  in  the  same  direction 
in  which  the  sun  rotates  on  its  axis,  and  determine 
the  direction  of  the  axial  currents  and  electro- 
magnetic polarity  of  the  planets,  independently  of 
the  direction  of  their  several  rotations. 

By  changing  the  position  of  a  bar  of  iron  from 
a  horizontal  to  an  oblique  direction,  corresponding 
to  the  dip  of  a  dipping  needle,  the  bar  is  instan- 
taneously rendered  an  electro-magnet  by  the  ter- 
restrial currents. 

This  bar-magnet  will  induce  corresponding 
currents  in  small  pieces  of  iron,  as  nails  and 
screws,  which  are  also  attracted  reciprocally  to- 
ward each  other. 

The  facility  with  which  electric  currents  change 
their  direction  is  shown  in  the  artificial  current 
changer,  by  which  they  are  reversed  several 
thousand  times  a  minute. 

Vibrations  directed  obliquely,  as  well  as  those 
directed  vertically,  against  molecules  and  bodies, 
produce  resultant  movements  at  right  angles  to 
their  surfaces  at  the  point  of  impact. 


92       VIBRATIONS    CAUSE    RECTANGULAR    MOTION. 

A  similar  resultant  movement  of  molecules  and 
bodies  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  impinged 
upon,  is  illustrated  by  the  parallelogram  of  forces 
in  the  annexed  diagram.  Elastic  particles  moving 

obliquely  at  the  angle  of 
incidence,  A,  impinge 
upon  the  surface  of  B,  and 
rebound  at  the  angle  of 
reflection,  c.  The  result- 
ant movement  will  be  in  the  direction  D  B,  at  right 
angles  to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  impact ;  the 
angle  of  incidence  being  equal  to  the  angle  of 
reflection,  and  in  an  opposite  direction. 


ATTRACTION    AND    REPULSION. 


93 


CHAPTER   XII. 

ELECTRIC  ATTRACTION  AND   REPULSION   (SO  CALLED) 
ARE  RESULTANT  MOVEMENTS. 

FT  is  found  experimentally  that  electric  currents 
transmitted  through  electrodes  in  similar  di- 
rections, produce  reciprocal  movements  toward 
each  other ;  and  from  each  other,  when  trans- 
mitted in  opposite  directions. 

Fig.  1 8  represents  two  parallel  conducting  wires, 
A  B,  supported  on  the 
prongs  c  D  E  F,  and 
counterpoised  by  the 
weights  b  b;  so  as  to 
swing  toward  and  from 
each  other  freely  as  pen- 
dulums. Arrangements 
of  connecting  wires  are 
made  to  transmit  cur- 
rents through  them  at 
pleasure,  in  similar  and 
in  opposite  directions., 
The  currents  moving  Fig.  is. 

along  the  adjacent  wires  in  similar  directions,  by  a 
process  of  induction,  change  the  vibrations  between 


94     MATTER  RECEIVES  AND  TRANSFERS  IMPULSES. 

them  into  conforming  currents  parallel  with  their 
surfaces ;  thereby  partially  neutralizing  the  vibra- 
tions against  the  nearest  sides  of  the  wires.  The 
vibrations  impinging  against  their  outer  sides 
then  predominate,  and  propel  the  two  wires  to- 
ward each  other,  —  producing  the  phenomenon 
of  Attraction. 

When  the  currents  move  in  opposite  directions 
along  the  adjacent  sides  of  electrodes,  their  inter- 
ference intensifies  the  vibrations  between  them ; 
which  then  predominate  over  the  vibrations  im- 
pinging against  their  outer  sides,  and  propel  the 
two  wires  from  each  other,  —  producing  the  phe- 
nomenon of  Repulsion. 

Attraction  and  Repulsion,  however  diverse  the 
movements  may  appear,  are  alike  the  resultants 
of  joint  forces, —  which  act  in  similar  or  dissimilar 
directions,  —  and  not  of  a  single  impulse  acting 
in  one  direction. 

That  one  body  can  intervene  and  screen 
another  from  the  rectilinear  transmission  of  vi- 
brations, is  manifest  by  the  obstruction  of  sound 
and  light  incident  to  such  intervention,  and  by 
the  production  of  dull  sounds  and  shadows,  si- 
lence and  darkness. 

The  intervention  of  the  moon  screens  a  portion 
of  the  earth  from  the  vibrations  of  light  during  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun. 

It  is  the  peculiar  function  of  all  matter  passively 
to  receive  and  transfer  impulses ;  as  is  accom- 


MOVEMENTS    OF    COMPASS    NEEDLES. 


95 


plished  by  the  propelled  globes  of  rotating  planets ; 
which,  like  propelled  rifle-balls,  are  sped  on  their 
way,  transmitting  impulses  imparted  to  them,  and 
executing  the  will  of  a  calculating  intelligence. 

The  vast  universe  was  propelled  into  space 
by  an  all-wise  and  all-powerful  Maker;  and  that 
propulsive  action,  which  thrills  every  world  and 
molecule,  will  cease  only  by  the  exercise  of  that 
Maker's  will. 

The  governing  principle  of  the  material  universe 
is  Propulsion  rather  than  Attraction. 

It  now  remains  to  investigate  the  reciprocal 
movements  of  bodies,  produced  by  transverse 
electric  currents. 

How  do  the  currents  circulating  from  east  to 
west  about  the  earth  produce  the  horizontal 
movements  of  compass  needles,  turning  them 
around  on  their  pivots  ?  By  experimental  inves- 
tigation with  conducting  wires  arranged  near  one 

A     5 


8          7         6 

Fig.  19 


another,  in  various  relative  directions,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  bodies  serving  as  electrodes  are 
propelled  in  directions  rectangular  to  the  lines  of 
the  currents,  as  represented  in  Fig.  19. 


96    ACTION  AND  REACTION  OF  ELECTRODES. 

An  extended  electric  current  is  represented  by 
p  n.  Sections  of  terminated  currents  on  each 
side  of  /  n,  and  crossing  at  various  angles,  are 
denoted  by  the  arrows  numbered  from  i  to  8. 
The  several  resultant  movements  are  designated 
by  the  short  arrows. 

Much  ingenuity  is  requisite  to  render  bodies 
freely  movable  while  connected  with  electric  ap- 
paratus.1 

To  exhibit  the  reciprocal  action  and  reaction 
between  bodies  serving  as  electrodes,  and  trans- 
mitting currents  in  various  relative  directions, 

an  eminent  experi- 
•*••••  menter  contrived 

W 

- »-  a  light  wire  frame, 

suspended  on  pivots 
p  and  N   (Fig.   20), 
resting  in  cups  con- 
taining mercury  to 
.n  insure    conduction. 
Fig.  20.  The  lower  side    of 

the  frame  E  w,  when  arranged  parallel  with  the 
conducting  wire  /  n,  transmitting  currents  in  the 
same  direction  beneath  it,  is  in  its  most  stable 
position  of  reciprocal  attraction.  To  whatever 
position  the  wire/  n  may  be  turned  horizontally, 
the  under  side  of  the  frame  will  follow  it,  and 
retain  the  same  relative  direction. 

1  For  an  account  of  various  original  experiments  in  Electro-dynam- 
ics, reference  may  be  had  to  the  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  vol. 
xv.,  p.  93. 


NATURAL    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS.  97 

The  terrestrial  electric  currents  from  east  to 
west  about  the  earth  are  represented  by  the  cur- 
rent /  n,  and  will  cause  the  wire  frame,  while 
transmitting  a  current,  to  turn  in  a  conformable 
direction  east  and  west,  and  to  manifest  all  the 
characteristic  properties  of  a  compass  needle,  with 
a  north  and  south  polarity. 

Considering  the  extended  conducting  wire/  », 
in  Fig.  19,  to  represent  the  direction  of  the  terres- 
trial currents  from  east  to  west,  and  the  diago- 
nally directed  currents  2  3  4,  6  7  8,  the  directions 
of  currents  approaching  to  and  receding  from  the 
horizontal  terrestrial  current,  the  short  lateral 
arrows  would  designate  the  resultant  movements, 
—  all  at  right  angles  to  the  linear  direction  of  the 
short  wires,  according  to  principles  previously 
explained.  In  Fig.  20,  the  vertical  descent  of  the 
current  at  E,  toward  /  n,  develops  the  resultant 
movement  denoted  by  the  short  lateral  arrow  No.  3 
in  Fig.  19,  which  tends  to  swing  the  end  of  the 
frame  E  horizontally  around ;  while  the  ascent  of 
the  current,  at  w,  represents  the  relative  direction 
corresponding  with  No.  7  in  Fig.  19.  The  result- 
ant movement  indicated  by  the  short,  dotted,  lat- 
eral arrows,  Nos.  3-7,  turn  it  to  correspond  in 
direction  with  the  current  p  n. 

To  illustrate  the  identity  of  the  reciprocal 
action  between  electric  currents  circulating  around 
conducting  wires,  and  the  natural  currents  circu- 
lating about  loadstones,  and  all  other  magnetSi 


98  DE    LA    RIVE'S    RINGS. 

De  la  Rive  contrived  to  render  conducting  wires 
freely  movable,  setting  them  afloat  on  pieces  of 

cork,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  21.  To  ex- 
cite currents  through 
the  floating  wires  A  B 
a,  he  affixed  to  their 
lower  ends  zinc  plates 
opposite  to  copper 
Fis%  2!-  plates,  and  immersed 

them  in  acid  in  a  basin.  They  then  became 
electro-magnets.  The  directions  of  the  currents 
are  denoted  by  the  arrow  heads. 

The  rings,  A  B,  about  which  the  currents  move 
in  similar  directions,  sail  toward  each  other; 
while  the  ring  a,  which  transmits  the  current  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  that  about  B,  is  repelled. 
It  gradually  turns  around,  so  that  the  sides  about 
which  the  currents  move  in  similar  directions  face 
each  other ;  then  they  are  propelled  together. 

These  pieces  of  conducting  wire,  while  serving 
to  transmit  electric  currents,  manifest  all  the 
characteristic  properties  of  magnets  similarly  set 
afloat  on  pieces  of  cork  by  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers, as  previously  described. 

Although  a  compass  needle  points  its  poles,  or 
ends,  north  and  south,  apparently  crosswise  of  the 
terrestria.1  currents  from  east  to  west,  yet  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  the  electro-magnetic  currents 
circulate  about  the  axis  of  a  magnet,  and  not 


PROFESSOR    BARLOWS    EXPERIMENT.  99 

longitudinally;  so  that  the  terrestrial  currents 
from  east  to  west,  and  the  currents  about  the 
under  side  of  every  compass  needle,  are  finally 
brought  to  move  in  similar  directions. 

The  phenomenon  of  terrestrial  magnetism  is 
admirably  illustrated  by  Professor  Barlow's  in- 
vention of  winding  numerous  circuits  of  insulated 


Fig.  22. 

conducting  wire  about  a  little  globe,  with  a  com- 
pass needle  mounted  on  top  of  it,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  22.  By  employing  intense  battery  currents 
from  a  voltaic  apparatus,  to  overpower  the  ter- 
restrial currents,  all  the  phenomena  of  terrestrial 
magnetism  are  exhibited. 

Until  the  connection  of  the  conducting  wire  is 
made  with  the  voltaic  battery,  the  compass  needle 
placed  on  top  of  the  artificial  globe  takes  its  usual 
north  and  south  direction,  pointing  to  the  poles  of 
the  earth  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  overpowering  battery 
current  is  transmitted  through  the  conducting 
wire  wound  in  numerous  spiral  coils  about  the 
little  globe,  the  compass  needle  turns  and  points 


ioo          AMPERE'S  FLOATING  HELIX  COIL. 

steadily  to  the  N  and  s  poles  of  the  artificial  globe ; 
and  faithfully  continues  to  point  to  them  in 
whatever  direction  it  may  be  turned. 

To  increase  the  intensity  of  the  electric  currents, 
Ampere    multiplied    the    number   of  circuits,   by 

winding  the  conducting 
wire  in  a  spiral;  Fig.  23. 
This  simple  apparatus 
develops  all  the  charac- 
teristic functions  of  a 
magnetic  needle  mount- 
23.  ed  on  a  pivot.  One  par- 

ticular end  always  turns  toward  the  north  pole 
of  the  earth,  and  when  disturbed  returns  to  that 
direction.  This  coil  serves  to  represent  the  trans- 
verse position  of  the  magnetic  needle  mounted  on 
the  little  globe;  w  represents  the  cross-section 
or  end  of  a  conducting  wire  transmitting  a  current 
in  a  direction  from  east  to  west,  corresponding 
with  the  direction  of  the  terrestrial  currents.  The 
battery  current  through  w,  being  more  immediately 
powerful  than  the  terrestrial  electric  current,  in 
whatever  direction  the  conducting  wire  w  may  be 
turned  in  relation  to  the  cardinal  points,  the  float- 
ing coil  will  turn  and  become  arranged  with  its 
underside  currents  moving  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  current  in  w ;  and  will  always  remain  stationary 
in  a  position  crosswise  to  the  current  through  w. 

If   the  wire  w  be  held  above  the  spiral   coil, 
where  the  circling  current  is  in  an  opposite  direc- 


MOVEMENTS    OF   DIPPING    NEEDLES. 


101- 


tion,  the  coil  is  turned  around  so  as  to  bring  the  cur- 
rent on  the  upper  side  in  the  same  direction,  and 
the  ends  or  poles  of  the  spiral  coil  are  reversed. 

The    mathematical   precision   with   which  the 
movements   of    electrodes   conform    to   the    rule 
of  "  reciprocal  at- 
traction between 
similarly    direct- 
ed   currents,"    is 
seen  in  the  pecu- 
liar movements  of        s*    x 
dipping    needles 
in  arranging  their 
positions  in  rela- 
tion to  the  circu- 
lation of  the  ter-  Fig.  24. 
restrial  electric  currents,  as  exhibited  in  Fig.  24. 

The  direction  of  the  currents  from  east  to  west 
about  the  earth  is  represented  by  the  arrows,  and 
also  the  direction  of  the  currents  about  the  compass 
needles  ABC;  to  which  spherical  outlines  are 
added,  to  show  the  directions  of  the  electro-mag- 
netic currents  about  each  of  them  when  transferred 
from  the  earth's  equator,  at  A,  toward  the  pole,  at 
B  and  at  c.  The  inclination  of  the  compass 
needle,  at  B,  shows  the  actual  movement  of  a  dip- 
ping needle  ;  and  the  currents  about  B,  and  about 
the  earth  in  that  latitude,  as  will  be  manifest  on 
inspection,  are  brought  to  move  in  similar  direc- 
tions by  the  "  dip  "  of  the  needle.  The  needle,  at  c, 


102 


POSITIONS    OF   DIPPING    NEEDLES. 


Fig.  25. 


is  turned  entirely  around.     The  several  relative 

positions  of  the  dipping 
needle  are  designated  in 
Fig.  25  by  the  arrows,  ar- 
ranged on  different  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface. 

That  the  phenomenon 
of  magnetism  is  excited 
by  terrestrial  electric 
currents,  is  verified  by 
the  following  experi- 
ments. If  a  bar  of  iron  be  held  in  a  horizontal 
east  and  west  position,  in  the  line  of  movement 
of  the  terrestrial  currents,  as  represented  at  B  A 
in  Fig.  26,  and  a  magnetic  needle  be  brought  near 

either  end  of 
the  bar,  an 
equal  recipro- 
cal attraction 
takes  place  be- 
tween them. 
On  lifting  the 
end  A  to  a 
sloping  posi- 
tion, as  repre- 
sented by  c  D,  in  a  line  directed  toward  the  north 
pole  of  the  earth,  the  terrestrial  currents  will  in- 
duce the  circulation  of  currents  about  the  bar  of 
iron,  c  D,  and  convert  it  into  an  electro-magnet ; 
with  the  lower  end,  c,  having  the  same  polarity 


Fig.  26. 


ACTION  OF  TERRESTRIAL  CURRENTS.     IO3 

as  the  end  of  the  needle  N.  Consequently,  as 
the  N  poles  of  magnets  reciprocally  repel  each 
other,  the  needle  is  swung  around  to  the  position 
denoted  by  the  dotted  needle  N  s. 

In  proportion  as  the  end  D  is  lowered  to  its 
previous  horizontal  position  A  B,  in  an  east  and 
west  direction,  the  magnetic  needle  swings  back, 
and  is  attracted  again  by  either  end  of  the  bar, 
indifferently. 

This  experiment  shows  not  only  the  action  of 
the  electric  currents  circulating  about  the  earth, 
but  also  the  sensitiveness  of  all  bodies  and  mole- 
cules of  matter  to  terrestrial  electro-magnetic 
excitation,  even  by  slight  changes  of  relative  po- 
sition in  regard  to  one  another,  while  serving  as 
electrodes.  An  iron  fire-poker,  if  it  happens  to 
remain  in  the  inclined  position  of  a  dipping  needle, 
becomes  magnetically  excited  by  the  terrestrial 
currents.  The  large  vertical  steel-drills  used  in 
machine-shops  are  rendered  so  powerfully  mag- 
netic, that  iron  chips  cling  to  them  after  the  drill 
has  been  used. 


IO4  POLARIZATION  I     HOW    SUSTAINED. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

THE  CONTINUOUS  CIRCULATION  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS 
ABOUT  MAGNETS  AND  MOLECULES  SUSTAINS  THEIR 
POLARIZATION. 

TT  may  seem  incredible  that  electric  currents, 
whereby  molecular  and  magnetic    forces   are 
sustained,  can  circulate  continually  about  molecules 
and  magnets ;  but  this  fact  is  verified  experimen- 
tally, and  the  direction  of  the  circulation  may  be 
reversed  several  thousand  times  in  a  minute,  with 
a   corresponding    reversal    of    their    poles.      By 
placing  a  common  steel       y^^^XXX^OOOTv 
sewing-needle     within    a  ~T  r [)(JOO(/0000)^ 
spiral  coil  of  wire,  as  in         /^^^^^       ^/ 
Fig.  2  7,  the  slightest  trans-  Fig,  27. 

mission  of  electric  action  through  the  coil  puts  in 
motion  a  corresponding  circulation  of  currents 
about  the  steel  needle,  and  renders  it  permanently 
magnetic.  That  particular  end  of  the  needle, 
about  which  the  circuit  of  the  current  is  in  the 
direction  shown  at  s,  being  similar  to  that  of  the 
hands  of  a  watch  about  a  dial-plate,  is  found  to 
manifest  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  south  pole 
of  a  magnet.  Where  the  current  comes  out  at 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    ELECTRO-MAGNETS.         105 

the  other  end  of  the  spiral  coil,  about  which  the 
same  current  appears  to  circulate  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  the  movements  of  the  hands  of  a  watch, 
the  properties  of  the  north  pole  are  excited.  But 
these  apparent  directions  depend  on  the  position 
of  the  observer  facing  one,  or  the  other,  end  of  the 
spiral  coil.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  pres- 
ence of  about  one  per  cent  of  molecules  of  car- 
bon in  iron  (constituting  steel],  imparts  to  it  the 
property  of  retaining  the  continuous  circulation 
of  electric  currents,  and  renders  the  compound 
substance  of  steel  permanently  magnetic.  The 
wonderful  facility  with  which  electric  currents 
are  excited  about  a  steel  needle,  has  rendered  this 
simple  contrivance  a  very  sensitive  test  of  electric 
excitation.  By  connecting  the  ends  of  the  con- 
ducting wire  with  the  metallic  roof  of  a  large 
building  in  Washington,  Dr.  Page  found  that  a 
flash  of  lightning,  twenty  miles  distant,  rendered 
the  needle  permanently  magnetic.  Knives  and 
steel  implements  are  often  rendered  magnets  in 
houses  struck  by  lightning  ;  and  even  the  direction 
of  the  currents  can  be  ascertained  by  examining 
which  end  of  the  steel  has  the  properties  of  a 
south  pole  :  see  Fig.  26. 

If  a  piece  of  iron  is  substituted  for  a  steel  needle, 
it  is  electro-magnetic  only  while  the  current  cir- 
culates around  the  coil.  The  conversion  of  pieces 
of  iron  into  powerful  electro-magnets  is  effected 
by  placing  them  within  spiral  coils  of  insulated  . 


106      TRANSIENT    ELECTRO-MAGNETIC    ACTION. 

conducting- wires,  as  in  Fig.  28.  At  the  instant 
of  stopping  and  of  renewing  the  battery  circuit 
around  the  piece  of  iron  inserted  in  the  coil,  an 


Fig,  2 


electric  spark  is  seen  to  pass  between  the  iron  and 
adjacent  knob,  w,  showing  the  disturbance  of  the 
electric  ether  pervading  the  particles  of  iron,  and 
thus  developing  the  peculiar  electric  excitation, 
denoted  "  magneto-electricity." 

These  reciprocal  movements  of  bodies  toward 
each  other,  and  their  union  while  transmitting 
currents  in  similar  directions,  result  from  the 
modification  of  the  vibratory  impulses  against 
the  adjacent  and  opposite  sides  of  approximated 
bodies  ;  as  previously  explained.  For  this  special 
reason,  the  movements  developed  by  electric 
currents,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  are  not  in  the 
direction  of  the  currents  passing  over  electrodes, 
but  at  right  angles  to  them  ;  as  shown  in  Fig.  19, 
where  the  actual  movements  are  pointed  out  by 


'•"V 


LATERAL   MOVEMENTS    PRODUCED.  107 

the  lateral  arrows  on  the  sides  of  the  conducting, 
wires,  234. 

These  lateral  movements  imparted  to  conducting 
wires  by  the  vibrations  impinging  against  their 
sides,  produce  rotations  of  electrodes  when  sup- 
ported on  an  axis;  as  in  Fig.  29,  where  a  conducting 
wire  is  shown  at  No. 
3,  as  connected  with 
a  pivot  c,  and  free  to  S*\,T 

turn  around  circular-  f 

ly  to  the  several  po- 
sitions   indicated    by  / 
the    dotted    lines     i    v 
2    4,   up  to    8,  with  "  ~     3~~ 
another     conducting-  Fis' 29' 
wire,  A  B,  beneath  ;  which  may  be  considered  as  rep- 
resenting the  horizontal  terrestrial  current  from 
east  to  west.     The  small  lateral  arrows  show  the 
resultant  rectangular  movement  of  the  wire  3,  in 
each  of  its  eight  positions  relative  to  A  B  ;  thus  the 
wire  c  D  3  will  be  kept  revolving  about  the  pivot  c. 

To  verify  the  theory  that  the  divergence  of 
electric  currents  from  a  central  point  at  right 
angles  to  another  current  (Fig.  29),  will  produce  a 
revolving  motion  of  the  electrode,  or  conducting 
body,  Faraday  placed  a  watch-crystal  filled  with 
mercury  within  a  brass  cup  and  in  contact  with 
its  rim,  which  was  amalgamated  and  connected 
with  the  screw-cups ;  this  brass  cup  was  environed 
by  conducting-wires,  and  an  electric  circuit  ar- 


108  WHIRLING    MOVEMENTS    PRODUCED. 

ranged  to  descend  vertically  to  the  centre  of  the 

mercury.  On  transmitting 
a  voltaic  current  in  this 
circuit  of  screw-cups  and 
wire  to  the  centre  of  the 
Ft.  y,.-  glass,  a  whirl  of  the  mer- 

cury is  caused  by  the  diverging  currents  from 
the  centre,  with  a  centrifugal  force  that  caused  its 
subsidence  beneath  the  point  of  the  wire,  purposely 
placed  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  mercury. 
The  currents  circulated  first  about  the  coil  sur- 
rounding the  mercury,  ascended,  and  then  de- 
scended to  the  centre  of  the  mercury,  radiating 
thence  as  from  the  centre  c  ;  Fig.  29.  The  alter- 
nate breaking  of  the  connection  of  the  circuit  by 
the  centrifugal  subsidence  of  the  mercury  at  the 
centre  of  the  whirl,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
level  consequent  on  the  stoppage  of  the  current, 
cause  a  repetition  of  this  operation  intermittently, 
as  often  as  the  current  is  restored. 

By  reversing  the  direction  of  the  current,  the 
direction  of  the  whirl  is  reversed. 

The  transmission  of  vertical  electric  currents 
to  and  fro,  between  the  clouds  and  the  horizontal 
currents  from  east  to  west  about  the  earth,  excites 
a  revolving  motion  of  the  air  similar  to  that  of  the 
mercury,  and  produces  whirlwinds  or  tornadoes; 
which  are  always  attended  with  electric  discharges. 
The  breeze,  or  aura,  issuing  from  the  point  of  a 
wire  on  the  excited  conductor  of  an  electric 


TORNADOES    PRODUCED    BY    ELECTRICITY.      109 

machine,  shows  that  the  air  is  put  in  motion  by 
electric  currents. 

The  uplifting  of  water  by  a  passing  tornado  is 
called  a  "  water-spout."  This  effect  is  illustrated 
by  holding  the  finger  over  a  vessel  of  water  placed 
on  the  excited  conductor  of  an  electric  machine. 
The  water  will  rise  in  spray  to  meet  the  finger. 

The  writer  had  once  an  opportunity  of  witness- 
ing, in  fearful  proximity,  the  phenomena  accompa- 
nying the  passage  of  a  tornado.  An  account  of 
it  was  given  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Robert  Hare,  and 
was  by  him  published  in  the  "  Transactions  "  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  in  1838.  This 
tornado  passed  over  the  south  part  of  the  city  of 
Providence,  and  across  Narragansett  Bay.  The 
central  whirl  proceeded  from  west  to  east  through 
a  calm  atmosphere,  overturning  trees  and  build- 
ings in  its  path  of  about  one  hundred  yards  in 
width.  Roofs  were  uplifted,  and  the  fragments 
were  scattered  through  the  air  like  missiles.  To 
escape  them  the  writer  fled  to  an  open  field,  while 
the  whirling  materials  moved  on  with  terrific 
force  and  an  appalling  roar  of  crashing  sounds. 

In  passing  over  the  water  the  inverted  cone  of 
dark  mist  swerved  about  like  a  huge  trunk  of  an 
elephant,  while  the  surface  of  the  water  beneath  it 
was  upheaved  tumultuously.  The  adjacent  waters 
foamed  like  a  boiling  caldron.  At  times  the  dark 
misty  cone  of  spray  was  rendered  brilliant  with 
gleams  of  lightning,  followed  by  a  momentary  lull. 


no 


BODIES    REVOLVED    BY    HEAT. 


This  spectacle  inspired  awe,  commingled  with 
admiration  of  the  sublime  display  of  Omnipotent 
Power,  as  graphically  described  by  the  Psalmist : 
"  He  bowed  the  heavens  and  came  down.  Dark- 
ness was  under  His  feet,  and  He  moved  on  the 
wings  of  the  wind.  He  made  darkness  His  secret 
place,  and  the  pavilion  around  about  Him  was 
dark  waters  and  thick  clouds  of  the  sky." 

The  intense  electric  excitation  transmitted 
through  the  vortex  of  a  tornado  at  Wallingford, 
Connecticut,  is  described  in  a  recent  account  as 
follows :  "  In  some  mysterious  manner,  the  hay 
from  a  barn,  taken  up  into  the  air,  was  set  on  fire, 
and  came  down  all  blazing  upon  the  ground." 

In  the  experiment  made  with  the  whirling  mer- 
cury, the  direction  of  the  whirl  depends  on  the 
ascending  or  descending  direction  of  the  electric 
current ;  and  probably  the  same  law  governs  the 
direction  of  a  whirling  tornado. 

Further  to  illustrate  the 
rotation  of  a  freely  movable 
conducting  wire,  or  other 
electrode,  produced  by  a  cur- 
rent vertical  to  the  horizontal 
terrestrial  currents,  the  slight 
excitation  of  a  thermo-elec- 
tric current  may  be  used ;  as 
in  Fig.  31,  which  represents 

an  arched  wire  frame,  w  A  E, 

^^ 

Flf' 3I'  supported  on  a  pivot  at  A, 


HEAT    EXCITES    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS.  Ill 

and  capable  of  readily  turning  around  it.  A  cir- 
cuit is  formed  by  a  cross-piece,  w  E,  made  of  some 
less  freely  conducting  metal  than  the  arching 
piece  of  wire,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
direction  of  the  circulating  thermo-electric  current 
excited  by  the  heat  of  the  flame  applied  at  the 
joint  w.  Were  equally  conducting  metals  used, 
the  vibratory  excitation  of  heat  would  be  extended 
by  molecular  vibration  of  the  wire  (denoted  "  con- 
duction of  heat"),  instead  of  circulating  electric 
currents.  The  excitation  from  the  flame  of  the 
lamp  first  ascends  the  readily  conducting  side  of 
the  arched  frame,  and  descends  on  the  other  side, 
completing  the  circuit  through  the  less  readily 
conducting  metal.  The  ascending  current  from 
w  is  vertical,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  horizontal 
terrestrial  currents ;  and  produces  a  movement  of 
the  frame  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the 
frame  (as  indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  small 
arrow  on  the  conducting-wire  No.  7,  Fig.  29). 
The  vertical  descending  current  on  the  other 
side  of  the  frame  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
conducting-wire  No.  3 ;  and  produces  a  move- 
ment in  an  opposite  lateral  direction,  as  denoted 
by  the  small  arrow  on  c  D.  Both  combine  to 
turn  the  frame  horizontally  on  its  pivot.  When 
the  side  E  comes  over  the  flame,  the  heat  reverses 
the  current ;  and  these  alternate  reversals  keep  the 
frame  continually  turning.  A  similar  revolving 
motion  of  a  little  frame  is  described  by  Professor 


112          LIGHT    EXCITES    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS. 

Crookes,  as  produced  by  the  action  of  the  light 
and  heat  of  a  lamp,  as  well  as  by  that  of  sun- 
shine. 

"  Four  discs,  made  of  light  pith,  of  the  size  of 
a  sixpence,  balanced  on  the  ends  of  two  straws, 
are  adjusted  to  revolve  horizontally  on  a  pivot. 
The  sides  of  the  pith-discs  are  inclined  downwards. 
They  have  one  side  blackened  by  plumbago,  or 
lamp-black,  and  the  other  side  white."  The  Profes- 
sor says :  "  When  this  apparatus  is  placed  under  a 
bell-glass  in  a  vacuum,  it  will  revolve  by  the  action 
of  sunlight  or  of  a  lamp."  There  appears  to  be 
an  analogy  between  the  revolutions  of  this  frame 
and  those  produced  by  the  lamp  in  the  experiment 
described.  The  difference  of  colors  of  the  discs, 
black  and  white,  corresponds  with  the  difference  of 
conducting  powers  of  the  metals  employed  in  the 
thermo-electric  apparatus ;  and  their  sides  sloping 
downward  correspond  with  the  vertical  sides  of 
the  wire  frame.  Then,  again,  the  transmission  of 
the  vibrations  of  the  all-pervading  electric  ether  is 
more  obvious  beneath  an  exhausted  bell-glass,  than 
in  the  open  air;  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  i,  page  23.* 

To  determine  the  different  action  of  terrestrial 
currents  on  the  vibrations  of  the  electric  ether 

1  In  a  treatise  on  "Light  as  a  Motive  Power,"  p.  55,  by  R.  H. 
Armit,  R.  N.,  the  following  explanation  is  given  :  "  Light  has  been  de- 
monstrated to  be  both  a  repulsive  and  attractive  force.  The  resultant 
of  these  forces,  as  regards  the  earth,  would  therefore  be,y?;-j/,  to  hold  the 
earth  grasped  within  the  rays  of  light,  as  within  a  pair  of  tongs.  And, 
secondly,  these  tongs  being  carried  round  by  the  sun  in  his  rotary  motion, 
an  orbital  motion  is  given  to  the  earth,  and  to  all  celestial  bodies  receiv- 
ing solar  light." 


VERTICAL    CURRENTS    TURN    NEEDLES. 


impinging  against  the  vertical  sides  of  compass- 
needles,  and  producing  rotation,  the  writer  caused 
a  steel  needle  to  be  made,  eight  inches  long,  with 
a  width  of  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  and  thickness 
of  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch,  balanced  on  the 
point  of  a  sewing-needle,  to  be  mounted  either 
flatwise  or  edgewise,  at  pleasure,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  32.  It  was  an- 
ticipated that,  in  ex- 
tending the  area  of 
the  vertical  currents 
on  the  sides  of  the 
needle,  a  more  pow- 
erful electro-mechan- 
ical action  might  be 
developed,  producing 
greater  oscillations  of 
the  needle.  To  test  this  supposition,  the  magnet 
was  placed  flatwise,  with  the  N  pole  pointing 
south,  and  then  left  free  to  yield  to  the  action  of 
the  terrestrial  currents  :  the  number  of  oscillations 
was  repeatedly  counted,  and  found  to  be  twenty- 
one  in  2.75  minutes,  before  the  magnet  came  to  a 
state  of  rest.  With  the  edgewise  mounting,  it 
made  twenty-seven  oscillations,  continuing  3.31 
minutes  ;  being  twenty-nine  per  cent,  more  in 
number,  and  continuing  twenty  per  cent,  longer 
in  time,  notwithstanding  the  greater  resistance  of 
the  air  from  the  broad  side  of  the  magnet. 


Fig.  32. 


114  ARTIFICIAL    CURRENT-CHANGER. 

•       . 

EFFECT    OF   CHANGING   THE  DIRECTION    OF   ELECTRIC 
CURRENTS. 

By  artificially  changing  the  directions  of  electric 
currents  transmitted  through  the  approximated 
sides  of  bodies  serving  as  electrodes,  their  recip- 
rocal movements  toward,  or  from  each  other,  are 
producible  at  pleasure.  This  is  effected  by  the 
use  of  a  "  Current-changer,"  as  in 
Fig.  33.  Two  elastic  steel  springs, 
w  w,  are  severally  connected  with 
Fig' 33>  the  two  poles  of  a  battery  circuit, 

for  transmitting  the  current  first  to  one  half  of  a 
semi-cylindrical  clasp  s,  and  then  to  the  other  half 
successively,  by  the  turning  of  the  spindle  A,  shown 
by  a  cross-section.  The  two  clasps,  s  s,  are  insu- 
lated by  varnished  silk  from  the  spindle,  and  are 
severally  connected  with  the  two  ends  of  a  con- 
ducting-wire  by  which  the  direction  of  the  battery 
circuit  is  to  be  reversed.  This  device  is  used  as  an 
automatic  current-changer ;  and,  by  its  timely  rever- 
sals from  an  attractive  to  a  repellent  electric  force, 
a  freely  movable  coil  of  conducting  wire  is  made  to 
revolve  several  thousand  turns  in  a  minute. 

The  instantaneous  change  of  direction  of  cir- 
culating electric  currents  about  bodies  and  mole- 
cules, and  consequent  instantaneous  changes  from 
reciprocal  attraction  to  reciprocal  repulsion,  is 
shown  by  the  blow  of  a  hammer  on  a  bar  of  iron, 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  34. 


SUDDEN    REVERSAL    OF    CURRENTS. 


On  gradually  lifting  the  iron  bar,  s,  to  the 
sloping  position  of  the  dip 
of  a  dipping-needle,  the 
circulating  currents  about 
the  iron  bar,  induced  by 
the  terrestrial  currents, 
are  suddenly  intensified 
by  the  percussion  of  the 
hammer,  and  turn  the 
compass  needle  rapidly 
to  the  position  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines.  The 
end  of  the  needle,  which 
was  previously  attracted 
toward  the  piece  of  iron, 
is  suddenly  repelled  for- 
cibly. 

This  phenomenon 
shows  an  analogy  to  the  sudden  reaction  devel- 
oped between  the  particles  of  percussion  powder, 
commonly  used  for  firing  gunpowder.  The  pres- 
ence of  molecules  of  nitrogen,  combined  with 
molecules  of  mercury,  silver,  potash,  glycerine, 
cotton,  &c.,  reduces  the  compound  to  an  unstable 
condition  of  circulating  molecular  currents,  corre- 
sponding with  those  about  the  iron  in  the  experi- 
ment described.  The  blow  of  the  hammer  of  a 
percussion  lock  suddenly  determines  the  reversal 
of  the  molecular  currents,  with  the  result  of  a 
violent  repulsion  between  them,  and  explosive 


fig.  34- 


Il6        UNSTABLE    ELECTRO-STATIC    CONDITIONS. 

reaction  of  the  combined  particles  of  carbon 
hydrogen,  in  the  unstable  organic  substances  of 
gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine,  gun-powder,  &c.  A 
gleam  of  sunshine  disturbs  the  unstable  electro- 
static condition  of  the  nitrate  of  silver  in  combi- 
nation with  molecules  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
in  the  organic  compound  substance  of  paper,  col- 
lodion, linen,  cotton,  and  even  of  the  hair  and 
skin  ;  and  changes  their  molecular  groupings  and 
capability  of  reflecting  light.  The  molecules  of 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  all  organic  formations 
are  rendered  freely  movable  by  the  excitation 
of  light,  when  impregnated  with  the  nitrate  of 
silver,  commonly  denoted  "  lunar  caustic."  The 
molecules  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  become  united 
and  produce  water,  leaving  the  molecules  of  car- 
bon revealed  as  a  negative  black,  on  the  surface 
of  the  organic  body.  The  greater  or  less  extent 
of  carbonization  of  the  surface  of  white  paper, 
with  the  different  resulting  power  of  reflecting 
light,  develops  the  lights  and  shades  of  photo- 
graphic pictures,  which  excite  the  admiration  of 
mankind  as  magical  productions  of  sunbeams. 

Photographic  pictures  are  really  the  results  of 
the  chemical  decomposition  of  organic  substances, 
corresponding  to  the  decomposition  of  the  human 
skin  and  flesh  by  nitrate  of  silver,  leaving  the  black 
charcoal,  and  liquefying  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
into  water. 

A  similar  result  of  the  chemical  decomposition 


MAGNETIC    AND    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS.          I  1 7 

of  organic  substances  is  produced  without  the 
intervention  of  molecules  of  nitrogen,  by  intensi- 
fying the  solar  action  by  a  lens  on  a  sheet  of  white 
paper ;  which  is  speedily  turned  brown  and  black 
by  driving  off  the  molecules  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  and  leaving  the  charcoal. 

A  remarkably  unstable  electro-static  condition 
of  molecules  of  hydrogen  and  of  chlorine  exists 
when  mingled  together;  which  a  gleam  of  sun- 
shine disturbs,  producing  their  instantaneous 
union  with  explosive  force. 

RECIPROCAL    ACTION    BETWEEN    ELECTRIC    CURRENTS 
AND     MAGNETIC     CURRENTS. 

That   there   are    electric    currents    continually 
circling  about  the  axis  of  a  magnet,  as  about  the 
axis  of  the  earth,  is  proved  by  its  pro-        ,,'—>> 
ducing    the  same  reaction  as  if  a      /  \^ 

spiral  conducting-wire  were  wound  lx  X/ 
around  it,  transmitting  a  continuous  i^U^i 
current  from  a  voltaic  battery.  The  >(  X 

currents  circulate  in  the  same   uni-          %"-iEK    JB 

form  direction  about  the  axis   of  a       \ 

•---_>-• 

magnet ;  but  they  appear  to  move  in  .  Figf  35. 
opposite  directions,  when  a  bar-magnet  is  bended 
to  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  as  represented  in  Fig. 
35.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  currents  about 
the  s  pole,  when  facing  the  observer,  move  in  the 
same  direction  that  the  hand  of  a  watch  moves 
about  the  dial-plate,  and  those  about  the  N  pole 


I  1 8  THE    STATIC    NEEDLE. 

in  a  reverse  direction.  These  apparently  opposite 
directions  are  the  results  of  bending  around  the 
ends.  In  accordance  with  the  preceding  illus- 
trations, the  two  opposite  poles  develop  a  recip- 
rocal attraction ;  for  the  currents  move  in  similar 
directions  about  their  nearest  sides.  About  the 
N  poles,  or  the  s  poles,  of  two  bar-magnets,  when 
similarly  brought  near  one  another,  the  currents 
move  in  opposite  directions,  with  a  consequent 
reciprocal  repulsion  between 
them.  If  two  magnetic  needles 
be  fastened  together  with  their 
opposite  poles  adjacent,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36,  their  recipro- 
cal action  and  reaction  neutral- 
ize one  another,  and  the  terres- 
36.  trial  currents  do  not  turn  this 

compound  needle  on  its  pivot ;  hence  it  is  denoted 

a    STATIC    NEEDLE. 

In  Fig.  35,  w,  representing  the  section  of  a 
conducting  wire  between  the  two  vertical  poles, 
N  s,  is  propelled  by  the  two  combined  magnetic 
currents  in  the  direction  denoted  by  the  arrow,  if 
the  electric  current  ascends  through  it,  and  in  the 
opposite  direction  if  it  descends.  So  delicate 
is  the  combined  action  of  the  magnetic  currents 
circling  between  the  two  poles  of  a  horse-shoe 
magnet,  that  a  flexible  strip  of  gold-leaf  is  used, 
as  represented  between  the  two  poles  N  s,  Fig. 
37,  for  a  sensitive  test  of  slight  electric  currents. 


MAGNETIC    AND    ELECTRIC    CO-OPERATION.       I  19 


While  an  electric  current  is  transmitted  through 
the  flexible  strip  of  gold-leaf,  it  is 
propelled  forward  or  backward, 
according  to  the  direction  of  the 
current  up  or  down.  This  instru- 
ment is  one  of  the  most  available 
tests  of  the  slightest  transmission 
of  an  electric  current.  A  glass 
tube,  T,  protects  it  from  agitation 
by  currents  of  air. 

The  forcible  action  developed 
between  magnetic  and  electric  cur- 
rents is  most  strikingly  manifested 
by  the  apparatus  of  a  wheel  re- 
volving between  the  two  vertical 
poles  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet ;  as 
in  Fig.  38.     By  arranging  connecting  wires  in  the 
base-board,  the  electric  cur- 
rent is  made  to  descend  from 
the   axis  of  the  wheel    into 
conducting  mercury  in    the 
trough,  to  complete  the  cir- 
cuit.     A    swift   rotation    of 
the  wheel  is  thus  produced, 
by  the  action  and  reaction  de- 
veloped by  the  co-operation 
of  magnetic  and  electric  cur- 
rents.    The  electro-mechan- 
ical action  is  intensified,  pro- 
ducing  very   swift-revolving 


Fig.  38. 


120 


REVOLVING    CONDUCTING    WIRES. 


movements,  by  using  numerous  circuits  of  conduct- 
ing-wire  in  an  oblong  coil  between 'the  two  poles  of 
a  horse-shoe  magnet,  as  represented  in  Fig.  39,  with 
the  addition  of  the  usual  current-changer,  com- 
posed of  two  elastic  springs  connected  with  the 

oblong  coil.  This  current- 
changer  reverses  the  direc- 
tion of  the  circuit  at  every 
half-revolution,  and  thereby 
sustains  a  continuous  pro- 
pulsion to  augment  the 
electro-motive  power.  Mr. 
Davis  says :  "  This  instru- 
ment revolves  with  the 
wonderful  velocity  of  more 
than  six  thousand  rota- 
tions per  minute,  and  pro- 
duces a  loud  humming 
sound,  audible  at  a  consid- 
Fi*- 39>  erable  distance." 

Ampere,  De  la  Rive,  Wollaston,  and  other  in- 
vestigators in  electro-dynamics,  suggested  various 
theoretical  relationships  of  electric 
and  magnetic  currents  for  produc- 
ing resultant  movements,  which 
appear  to  have  been  verified  with 
mathematical  precision.  Faraday, 
with  his  persevering  sagacity,  suc- 
ceeded, in  the  year  1821,  in  exhib- 
iting a  conducting-wire  revolving 


Fig.  40. 


CURRENTS  AND  MAGNETS  COMBINED. 


121 


about  the  pole  of  a  magnet  in  conformity  with  the 
tangential  forces  of  the  circulating  currents,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  40  ;  which  represents  a  conducting- 
wire  suspended  on  a  loop,  transmitting  a  current 
to  the  mercury  in  a  glass,  in  which  a  magnet 
is  inserted,  with  a  connection  of  its  lower  end 
with  a  coriducting-wire,  d,  to  complete  the  circuit. 
The  suspended  wire  revolves  about  the  upper  end 
of  the  magnet.  If  the  wire  be  extended  the  whole 
length  of  the  magnet,  the 
diamagnetic  currents  neu- 
tralize this  action. 

He  afterward  succeeded 
in  producing  the  recipro- 
cal revolutions  of  a  mag- 
net, M,  and  conducting- 
wire  w,  about  one  another, 
as  represented  in  Fig.  41. 
Mercury  was  used  in  the 
glass  for  a  conductor  in 
connection  with  the  screw 
cup  c. 

Innumerable  other  com-  Fie-  41. 

binations  of  currents  and  magnets  have  been 
invented  to  illustrate  the  transmission  of  electro- 
mechanical action.  Although  the  principal  mag- 
netic power  is  manifested  by  the  poles,  or  ends, 
of  magnets,  yet  a  very  important  action  is  devel- 
oped by  the  currents  circulating  about  the  mid- 
dle or  equatorial  parts,  as  previously  illustrated 


122  ACTION    OF    LATERAL   CURRENTS. 

by  the  artificial  globe  with  a  magnetic  needle 
mounted  upon  it  (Fig.  22).  This  action  of  lateral 
electric  currents,  transversely  to  the  axial  polar 
magnetic  forces,  is  denoted  Diamagnetism. 


DIAMAGNETISM. 


I23 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


DIAMAGNETISM. 

"\17HILE  only  a  few  kinds  of  elementary  sub- 
stances —  such  as  iron,  nickel,  and  various 
crystals  —  manifest  polarized  magnetic  force,  all 
kinds  of  substances,  in- 
cluding organized  com- 
pounds, such  as  wood, 
coal,  &c.,  manifest  dia- 
magnetism  when  they  are 
held  between  the  poles 
of  a  powerful  electro- 
magnet ;  as  exhibited  in 
Fig.  42. 

The  attraction  acting 
on  the  sides  of  bodies  is 
commonly  exhibited,  by  suspending  them  by  a 
flexible  thread  between  the  poles  of  electro-magnets. 
If  a  silver  or  copper  coin  be  thus  suspended,  it  is 
turned  about  with  the  flat  sides  diamagnetically 
fronting  the  two  opposite  poles ;  while  a  bar  of 
iron,  nickel,  bismuth,  and  various  crystals  are 
arranged  in  a  longitudinal  position  between  the 
two  poles. 


124        DIAMAGNETIC    CURRENTS    EXCITE    HEAT. 

To  show  the  force  of  the  diamagnetic  attraction, 
experimenters  commonly  twist  the  string  tightly, 
to  produce  a  swiftly-revolving  motion,  whereby 
the  suspended  body  is  caused  to  rotate  rapidly, 
and  is  then  instantaneously  stopped,  when  it  is 
brought  into  a  position  intermediate  between  the 
two  poles,  with  the  flat  sides  facing  each  pole.  In 
accordance  with  the  law  of  attraction  between 
similarly-directed  currents,  this  phenomenon  ap- 
pears to  be  due  to  the  inductive  excitation  of 
currents  about  the  sides  of  the  coins,  correspond- 
ing with  those  excited  about  the  poles  of  the  elec- 
tro-magnet. 

To  test  the  result  of  whirling  bodies  by  force 
between  the  poles  of  electro-magnets  after  being 
thus  arrested,  an  intelligent  experimenter  fixed 
the  rotated  body  on  a  spindle  turned  by  a  driving- 
band  from  a  pulley.  He  discovered  that  it  became 
electrically  excited,  like  the  pieces  of  iron  rotated 
between  the  poles  of  horse-shoe  magnets,  in  mag- 
neto-electric machines ;  which  excite  the  vibratory 
movements  of  the  electric  ether,  recognized  as 
electric  light  and  heat. 

Another  experimenter  placed  some  fusible  metal 
(composed  of  lead,  tin,  and  bismuth,  which  melts 
at  212°  of  Fahr.)  within  a  brass  tube,  and  sub- 
jected it  to  rotation  between  the  poles  of  an  electro- 
magnet. Without  friction,  or  contact,  the  rotated 
brass  case  and  its  contents  speedily  became  so 
much  excited  by  this  rotation  opposite  to  the 


CAUSE  OF  INTERNAL  HEAT  OF  THE  EARTH.   125 

magnetic  poles,  as  to  melt  the  compound  metal, 
which  the  experimenter  poured  out  on  the  table 
of  a  laboratory. 

This  experiment  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  opposite  to  the  two  polarized 
electro-magnetic  bodies  of  the  sun  and  mpon ; 
whereby  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth  may  be 
similarly  excited  to  fuse  crystallized  rocks  into 
melted  lava,  at  times  poured  out  from  the  tubes 
of  volcanic  craters  on  adjacent  table-lands,  as  the 
fusible  metal  on  the  table  of  a  lecture-room. 

This  experiment  indicates  that  the  interior  mol- 
ecules of  bodies  are  excited  by  their  rotation,  as 
well  as  the  exterior  molecules  on  the  surface ;  and 
that  while  the  orbital  revolutions  of  the  planets  in- 
duce the  solar  reaction,  warming  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  its  axial  rotation  warms  the  interior,  —  as 
manifested  by  the  eruptions  of  volcanoes.  The 
intensity  of  the  excitation  of  the  interior  of  the 
earth  is  found  to  be  regularly  increased  about  i° 
Fahr.  for  each  sixty  feet  of  depth  ;  so  that  by  very 
deep  boring  for  an  Artesian  well,  an  abundant 
discharge  of  hot  water  of  the  temperature  of  1 70° 
has  been  obtained,  in  a  German  city,  for  public 
baths.  The  Geysers  amid  the  frozen  regions  of 
Iceland,  and  in  the  valleys  of  Northwestern  Amer- 
ica, send  forth  continually  columns  of  hot  water 
to  great  heights. 

These  facts  corroborate  the  general  law  of  diffu- 
sion of  electro-mechanical  action  by  the  axial  and 


126       CURRENTS  ABOUT  MOLECULES. 

orbital  revolutions  of  the  planets,  reaching  even 
the  very  centre  of  the  earth. 

The  circulation  of  currents  about  the  exterior 
of  the  globe  of  the  earth  has  been  considered  by 
an  eminent  philosopher  as  producing  the  polariza- 
tion  of  the  interior  molecules, 

as   rePresented   in    Fig-   43; 
neutralizing  the  interior  cur- 

\          ~     1   rents  in  opposite    directions 

X^v.^y^'^  "N.  T 

s~*\{  )•/  about  their  nearest  sides,  by 
clasping  them  all  in  one  ex- 

Figt  43.  terior  closed  circuit,  as  indi- 

cated by  the  directions  of  the  arrows.  With  such 
unstable  electro-static  counterbalancings  of  oppo- 
sitely-circulating molecular  currents,  it  may  be 
readily  imagined  that  a  sudden  violent  explosive 
separation  of  molecules  of  carbon  in  gunpowder 
and  percussion  powder  may  ensue,  on  breaking 
the  exterior  closed  circuit  with  the  blow  of  a 
hammer. 


CURRENTS    IN    CLOSED    CIRCUITS. 


127 


CHAPTER   XV. 


CIRCULATION     OF      ELECTRIC     CURRENTS     IN     CLOSED 
CIRCUITS. 

"INFINITE  rectilinear  progression  in  finite  space 
being  impracticable,  there  is  a  necessity  for 
the  recurrence  of  portions  of  the  electric  ether  in 
circles  to.  the  same  place. 

A  periodical  return  of  the  heavenly  bodies  to 
the  same  place  is  also  the  great  law  of  Astronomy ; 
and  even  the  atmospheric  ether  moves  in  circles, 
denoted  cyclones.  A  similar  recurrence  of  the 
swiftly-moving  electric  ether  to  the  same  place,  in 
circuits  about  the  earth  and  about  magnets,  is  a 
law  of  electro-dynamics. 

A  remarkable  circulation  of  electric  currents  is 
manifest  in  the  arrangement  of  conducting  mole- 
cules, or  bodies,  to  form  circuits  by  rings  ;  as  when 
the  two  ends  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet  are 
connected  by  an  intervening  armature 
A,  as  represented  in  Fig.  44. 

In  a  closed  circuit,  the  polarity  dis- 
appears ;  for  there  are  no  longer  any 
ends,  or  poles,  to  the  magnet.  The  ex- 
ternal electro-magnetic  attraction  nearly 
disappears  from  the  two  conjoined  halves  Fig  44< 


128   CROSS  CURRENTS  AROUND  MOLECULES. 

of   an  electro-magnetic  iron  ring,  represented   in 

Fig.  45 ;  while  in  the 
closed  circuit  they  are 
so  very  powerfully  held 
conjoined,  that  weights 
of  several  thousands  of 
pounds  are  sustained 
thereby.  The  electro- 
magnetic excitation  in- 
stantaneously disap- 
pears from  a  bar  of  iron 
when  the  battery  circuit 
is  stopped;  but  in  the 
Fig- 4S'  closed  circuit  formed  by 

the  conjoined  semi-circles  it  continues  for  a  brief 
time.  The  union  of  molecules  formed  into  a  ring 
serves  to  sustain  a  compound  circulation  of  electro- 
magnetic currents,  as  through  the  string  of  a  circlet 
of  beads,  while  simultaneously  the  electro-magnetic 
currents  circulate  about  the  axis  of  each  individ- 
ual bead.  The  combined  action  of  these  elec- 
tro-magnetic currents  polarizes  electro-magnetic 
bodies.  The  action  of  the  diamagnetic  current 
around  each  molecule  is  exhibited  in  the  sponta- 
neou^  formation  of  rings  of  vapor  floating  in  the 
air,  resulting  from  puffs  of  smoke,  of  steam,  and 
especially  from  the  explosive  combination  of  phos- 
phuretted  hydrogen  ;  as  represented  in  Fig.  46. 

This  self-inflaming  gas  issues  from  the  beak  of 
a  retort  immersed  in  water,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 


FORMATION    OF    RINGS    OF    VAPOR.  129 

and  takes  fire  explosively  on  coming  in  contact 
with  the  air ;  producing  a  white  ring  of  smoke. 


Fig.  46. 

The  rings  successively  ascend  and  buoyantly  float 
in  the  air,  gracefully  waving  in  unbroken  circular 
forms.  A  rod  may  be  passed  through  them 
without  breaking  the  continuity  of  these  closed 
circuits.1 

The  formation  of  these  rings,  and  of  soap- 
bubbles  similarly  floating  in  the  air,  and  even  of 
the  great  planetary  globes,  is  doubtless  governed 
by  the  same  electro-dynamic  principles  of  closed 
circuits,  in  which  the  axial  magnetic  and  lateral 
diamagnetic  actions  are  combined  to  produce  re- 
sultant effects  of  molecular  unions. 

1  Helmholtz  supposes  this  vortex-whirl  would  continue  indefinitely 
in  a  frictionless  medium  ;  which  he  assumes  to  be  the  condition  of  the 
space  about  the  planet  Saturn,  the  formation  of  whose  wonderful  vapory 
rings  might  be  similarly  produced  and  sustained.  The  writer  first  saw 
the  formation  of  these  vapory  rings  on  the  simultaneous  discharge  of 
cannon  (a/eu  dejoie]  at  the  time  of  celebrating  the  restoration  of  peace 
between  England  and  America,  in  1815.  Two  of  these  vapory  rings, 
while  floating  in  the  air,  became  interlocked  like  links  of  a  chain,  and 
were  hailed  by  cheers  from  the  assembled  multitude,  as  an  auspicious 
omen  of  union. 

9 


CLOSED    CIRCUITS    IN    SPHERES,    ETC. 


The  polarity  of  a  body  may  be  determined  by 
IN  the  molecular  polarizations; 
which  neutralize  each  other 
>s  when  alternately  arranged,  or 
co-operate  when  combined ;  as 
>s  in  the  two  parts  of  Fig.  47. 
is  The  polar  action  and  the  dia- 
magnetic  action  induced  by 
electric  excitation  between  molecules,  sustains 
t.he  continuous  union  of  the  particles,  laterally 
and  longitudinally,  about  spherical  rain-drops, 
and  in  the  tenuous  film  of  bubbles,  while  their 
contact  facilitates  the  circulation  of  electric  cur- 
rents in  closed  circuits  around  the  spheres ;  as 
represented  in  Fig.  43,  p.  126. 

While  the  external  closed  circuits  develop  elec- 
tric attraction  between 
the  adjacent  sides  of 
two  bubbles,  A  B,  by 
moving  in  similar  di- 
rections, the  opposite 
directions  of  the  inte- 
rior closed  circuits  may 
produce  reciprocal  re- 
pulsion, and  bulge  out  the  sides  of  bubbles  to 
spheres. 

The  similar  circulation  of  electric  currents  in 
closed  circuits  is  not  limited  to  the  reciprocal  ac- 
tion and  reaction  between  molecules  on  a  minute 
scale,  in  terrestrial  mechanics  ;  but  is  extended  on 


Fig.  48. 


CAUSE    OF    THE    TIDES.  131 

a  sublime  scale  to  develop  the  electro-mechanical 
action  and  reaction  between  the  earth  and  moon, 
and  other  heavenly  bodies.  The  circulation  of 
electric  currents  in  closed  circuits  may  be  applied 
to  explain  the 

SIMULTANEOUS    RISE    OF     TIDES     ON     OPPOSITE    SIDES 
OF    THE    EARTH. 

Previous  illustrations  show  that  the  globe  of 
the  earth  is  a  powerful  electro-magnet,  excited  by 
the  paramount  electro-magnetic  power  of  the  sun, 
and  with  its  polarity  determined  through  the  solar 
action.  As  stronger  magnets  determine  the  di- 
rection of  electric  currents  circulating  about  fee- 
bler ones,  the  earth  unquestionably  determines 
the  direction  of  the  currents  circulating  about  its 
satellite,  the  moon,  to  move  in  a  similar  direction 
about  the  side  nearest  to  the  earth,  as  represented 
by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  49.  In 
accordance  with  the  principle  of 
action  and  reaction  between  elec- 
trodes transmitting  currents  in 
similar  and  in  opposite  directions, 
reciprocal  attraction  ensues  be- 
tween the  portion  of  molecules 
constituting  the  nearest  sides  of 
the  moon  and  the  earth  ;  and  re- 
ciprocal f  repulsion  between  the  Fig-  49- 
portion  of  molecules  constituting  the  side  of  the 
moon  nearest  to  the  earth  and  those  constituting 


132       ACTION    OF    EARTH    CURRENTS    ON    MOON. 

the  side  of  the  earth  most  remote  from  the  moon. 
As  electro-mechanical  impulses  act  on  individual 
molecules  to  produce  movements  of  masses  (the 
quantity  of  molecules  in  bodies  being  determined 
by  their  gravitating  descent  toward  the  centre  of 
the  earth),  the  ocean  waters,  covering  the  greater 
part  of  the  planet,  freely  yield  to  the  action  of  the 
electric  currents  where  they  circulate  in  similar 
directions  about  the  moon  and  earth,  and  flow 
toward  the  moon  on  the  side  of  the  earth  nearest 
thereto ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  waters  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  earth  yield  to  the  action  of 
the  oppositely-directed  currents  above  described, 
and  flow  away  from  the  moon.  In  accordance 
with  general  electro-dynamic  principles,  therefore, 
there  ensues  a  simultaneous  rise  of  tides  on  both 
sides  of  the  earth. 

The  present  popular  doctrine  of  tides  gives  the 
following  explanation  of  these  phenomena :  — 

"  The  simultaneous  rise  of  ocean-waters  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  earth  is  caused  by  lunar  attraction,  which 
draws  away  the  solid  part  of  the  earth  from  the  fluid 
ocean-waters  on  the  farthest  side  of  the  globe,  and  simul- 
taneously draws  away  the  waters  from  the  solid  part  of 
the  earth  on  the  nearest  side."  , 

But  no  reason  appears  to  be  given  for  this  dis- 
crimination between  the  gravitating  action  on  solid 
and  liquid  particles,  which  is  equally  efficient  in 
producing  the  motion  of  a  falling  rain-drop  and 
of  a  falling  stone.  The  similar  action  of  the 


MOMENTUM    OF    TIDAL    CURRENTS.  133 

earth's  currents  on  the  moon  renders  it  perma- 
nently oval,  or  egg-shaped,  as  discovered  by 
improved  telescopes ;  because  that  globe  has  not 
a  rapid  axial  rotation  like  the  earth,  to  vary  the 
attractive  force. 

Although  the  average  height  of  the  rise  of  the 
tides  is  only  three  or  four  feet,  yet  in  some  localities 
they  rise  thirty  or  forty  feet.  This  extraordinary 
elevation  is  due  to  the  momentum  of  tidal  currents, 
whereby  vast  masses  of  ocean-waters  are  put  in 
motion,  impinging  against  shelving  shores  and 
narrow  bays,  and  force  up  the  water,  as  by  cur- 
rents in  hydraulic  rams,  to  considerable  heights. 

A  little  additional  rise  of  the  tides  is  produced 
by  the  centrifugal  tendency  of  the  ocean-waters 
to  recede  from  the  centre  of  the  earth,  by  its 
monthly  orbital  revolution  about  the  common 
centre  of  the  moon  and  earth,  while  they  swing 
around  each  other.1 

THE  RELATIVE  EQUATORIAL  POSITIONS  OF  THE  MOON 
AND  EARTH  SUSTAINED  BY  THE  DIAMAGNETIC  CIRCU- 
LATION OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 

The  northern  and  southern  declinations  of  the 
moon,  denoted  its  librations,  affect  magnetic  nee- 
dles, as  stated  by  Professor  Bache.  This  action, 

1  The  similar  centrifugal  tendency  induced  by  the  daily  rotation  of  the 
earth  bulges  out  the  equatorial  region  to  thirty  miles  greater  diameter 
than  the  axial  measure  ;  making  a  rise  of  nearly  twelve  feet  to  the  mile 
in  proceeding  from  the  pole  to  the  equator.  The  Mississippi  River,  in 
flowing  from  north  to  south,  recedes  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  eight 
or  nine  feet  to  the  mile,  and  flows  by  the  centrifugal  tendency  of  its 
waters. 


134 


ITERATIONS    OF    THE    MOON. 


in  addition  to  the  tidal  action,  demonstrates  the 
electro-magnetic  connection  between  the  earth 
and  moon. 

The  extent  of  the  northern  and  southern  libra- 
tions  of   the  moon,  alternately  toward  the  north 

and  the  south  poles 
of  the  earth,  is  prob- 
ably governed  by 
the  equatorial  or  di- 
amagnetic  currents, 
which  restrain  the 
moon  from  vibrat- 
ing more  than  about 
29°  each  side  of  the 
equator.  In  Fig. 
50,  M  represents  a 
magnet,  and  c  a 
helix  coil,  set  afloat  like  the  ring  of  De  la  Rive, 
with  the  appended  zinc  and  copper  plates  im- 
mersed in  acids.  On  bringing  the  magnet  toward 
the  ring-coil,  it  is  found  to  pass  over  the  magnet, 
as  the  eye  of  a  needle  is  passed  over  a  thread,  and 
continues  to  move  over  it  until  the  ring  arrives  at 
the  middle  part  of  the  magnet.  There  it  stops, 
and  remains  permanently  at  rest.  The  earth, 
being  a  magnetic  body,  represents  M,  and  the 
currents  incident  to  the  circling  of  the  moon 
in  its  monthly  orbit  around  the  earth,  may  repre- 
sent the  coil  of  conducting-wire,  c.  The  recipro- 
cal action  and  reaction  between  the  diamagnetic 


DIAMAGNETIC    CURRENTS.  135 

currents  may  hold  the  moon  to  its  equatorial  posi- 
tion in  relation  to  the  earth,  and  prevent  its  libra- 
tion  beyond  the  poles  while  circling  around  it. 

This  diamagnetic  action  may  hold  also  all  the 
revolving  planets  electro-mechanically  in  their  true 
axial  and  orbital  positions  relatively  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic. 

The  diamagnetic,  or  equatorial,  currents  present 
more  extensive  surfaces  for  action  than  the  polar 
ends  of  magnets,  and  have  more 
effective  force.  The  currents  circu- 
lating around  a  bar  magnet,  and 
those  circulating  around  a  spiral 
coil  of  conducting-wire  wound  in  the 
form  of  a  helix,  present  toward  each 
other  the  greatest  possible  extent  of 
surface  when  the  bar  is  inserted 
within  the  tube  of  the  coil ;  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  51. 

The  bar  of  iron,  even  with  a 
heavy  weight  appended  thereto,  is 
powerfully  drawn  upward  into  the  .  SI. 

interior  of  the  helix,  and  is  upheld  there  without 
contact  with  the  coil ;  thus  exhibiting  the  most 
perfect  possible  elasticity,  by  its  freely  vibrating 
movements,  —  as  if  actually  dancing  on  the  air. 
However  often  the  bar  with  its  heavy  weight  may 
be  pulled  down,  it  will  ascend  again,  with  a  per- 
fectly free  and  elastic  recoil  and  very  considerable 
force. 


136      ASCENT  OF  SAP  IN  LOFTY  TREES. 

Some  analogy  seems  to  exist  between  the  ascent 
of  the  bar  within  the  tube  of  the  helix  coil  and 
the  ascent  of  sap  in  the  tubular  pores  of  trees ; 
and  also  of  fluids  in  lamp-wicks,  porous  sponges, 
sugar,  &c.,  —  in  the  manner  denoted  "  capillary 
attraction."  '  •». 

The  ascent  of  sap  against  the  action  of  gravita- 
tion to  the  height  of  three  hundred  feet  in  the 
California  cedars,  may  be  thus  explained.  The 
force  of  the  absorbent  capillary  action  of  sap  even 
in  a  humble  pumpkin,  or  squash,  has  been  exper- 
imentally proved,  at  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, Amherst,  Mass.,  to  be  sufficiently  powerful 
to  upheave  a  weight  of  several  thousand  pounds, 
during  its  growth. 

The  phenomenon  of  the  elasticity  of  steel  springs 
and  of  woody  fibres  admits  of  explanation  on  this 
principle  of  diamagnetic  molecular  action ;  which 
allows  of  the  partial  sliding  of  the  particles  on  one 
another  with  a  retraction,  like  the  drawing  back 
of  the  iron  bar  with  the  appended  weight. 

The  considerable  range  of  action  of  the  diamag- 
netic currents,  as  compared  with  the  polar  mag- 
netic action,  has  been  resorted  to  by  ingenious 
experimenters  for  utilizing  electro-motive  power. 
To  test  the  efficiency  of  this  plan,  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  was  induced  to  appropriate 
twenty  thousand  dollars  for  an  experimental  ma- 
chine devised  by  Dr.  Page,  thirty  years  ago.  To 
produce  a  direct  rotary  motion,  he  used,  instead  of 


DIAMAGNETIC    ELECTRIC    ENGINE.  137 

a  straight  bar,  a  semi-circular  bar  of  iron,  adapted 
to  pass  through  two  semi-circular  helix  coils. 

This  machine,  operated  by  a  voltaic  battery,  de- 
veloped considerable  effective  power  in  moving 
a  locomotive  engine  on  a  railroad  in  Washington  ; 
but  failed  to  produce  mechanical  action  as  cheaply 
as  by  the  combustion  of  coal. 


138  TESTS    OF    ELECTRIC    EXCITATION. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

MECHANICAL  ACTION  CONSIDERED  AS  A  TEST  OF  ELEC- 
TRIC EXCITATION.  POPULAR  THEORIES  OF  ELEC- 
TRICITY. 

A  S  of  elementary  molecules,  so  it  may  be  said 
of  the  electric  ether:  all  we  know  of  it  is  its 
power  of  transmitting  action.  For  this  special 
reason,  light  and  freely  movable  bodies  —  such  as 
feathers,  straws,  pith-balls,  and  flexible  gold-leaf  — 
are  resorted  to  for  receiving  and  developing  me- 
chanical impulses  transmitted  by  the  electric  ether. 
For  convenient  use  two  balls  are  commonly  em- 
ployed, made  of  the  pith  of  elder,  and  suspended 
by  flexible  threads  attached  to  an  insulating  glass- 
handle,  as  represented  in  Fig.  52.  This  simple 
apparatus  is  called  an  "  Electroscope,"  from  two 
Greek  words  signifying  "  Electricity  —  I  behold ;  " 
the  movements  of  these  balls  being  considered 
equivalent  to  an  exhibition  of  the  transference  of 
impulses  by  the  electric  ether. 

On  bringing  the  pith-balls  near  a  piece  of  amber, 
sealing-wax,  or  other  resinous 
substance,  after  putting  in  mo- 
tion the  electric  ether  pervad" 
ing  it  by  friction,  the  balls 
are  seen  to  move  directly 

Pig.  52- 


PITH-BALLS    AS    ELECTROSCOPES.  139 

toward  the  resinous  substance,  A  ;  as  represented 
in  Fig.  53.  On 
impinging  against 
the  excited  body  A, 
the  elastic  balls  re- 
bound, and,  hav- 
ing received  excita- 
tion by  contact,  are 
repelled  therefrom, 
and  also  recipro-  Fig- 

cally  from  each  other;  as  represented  in  Fig.  54. 

If  the  balls,  while  thus  ex-  ~ 
cited  and  diverging  from  a 
piece  of  rubbed  amber,  seal- 
ing-wax, or  other  resinous 
substance,  are  brought  near 
a  piece  of  glass,  or  other 
vitreous  substance  similarly 
excited  by  friction,  they  F<f' 54> 

are   moved   directly  toward  it,  and   develop  the 
phenomenon  called  attraction. 

To  explain  this  remarkable  movement  of  the 
excited  balls  from  an  excited  piece  of  amber,  or 
other  resinous  substance,  and  their  subsequent 
movement  toward  a  piece  of  rubbed  glass,  or 
other  vitreous  substance,  Dufay  originated  a  the- 
ory of  "  the  existence  of  two  different  kinds  of  elec- 
tricity, in  the  two  different  kinds  of  resinous  and 
of  vitreous  substances ;  each  having  self-repellent 
powers,  and  reciprocally  attractive  powers  for  the 


I4O  VITREOUS    AND    RESINOUS    THEORY. 

other."  The  descriptive  names  of  "  vitreous  "  and 
"  resinous  "  electricities  were  accordingly  given  to 
them. 

But,  after  further  experiments,  it  was  found 
that  if  a  tube  of  glass  be  ground  to  a  rough  surface 
at  one  end,  while  the  other  end  is  left  smooth,  and 
a  rubber  be  passed  over  the  whole  length  of  it, 
the  vitreous  electricity  is  manifest  only  on  the 
smooth  part,  and  the  resinous  appears  on  the 
rough  part.  This  showed  that  a  difference  of 
surface,  not  of  material,  determines  the  difference 
of  the  electricity.  Another  experiment  of  friction 
of  a  piece  of  silk,  with  one  end  dyed  black  and  the 
other  left  white,  showed  that  a  difference  of  color 
similarly  determines  the  kind  of  electricity  excited. 
In  this  way,  a  difference  of  colors  is  ascertained  in 
the  dark  by  a  difference  of  mechanical  reaction,  in 
clinging  together. 

These  facts  discredited  the  theory  of  Dufay. 
Professor  Faraday  instituted  a  course  of  experi- 
ments for  ascertaining  if  the  supposed  two  kinds 
of  electricity  could  be  separated ;  but  the  task 
proved  as  vain  as  an  attempt  to  separate  mechan- 
ical action  and  reaction,  which  are  always  u  equal 
and  in  opposite  directions,"  —  precisely  like  the 
phenomena  of  the  two  kinds  of  electrical  action 
and  reaction,  denoted  resinous  and  vitreous. 

Franklin  and  Priestley  attempted  to  simplify  the 
two-fluid  theory,  by  introducing  the  preserft  pop- 
ular single-fluid  theory,  after  Gilbert,  Newton,  and 


SINGLE-FLUID    THEORY.  141 

others  had  prepared  the  way.  The  single-fluid 
theory  is  described  in  Priestley's  "  History  of 
Electricity  "  as  follows  :  — 

"  When  the  equilibrium  of  the  electric  fluid,  dispersed 
through  the  pores  of  all  bodies,  is  not  disturbed,  and 
when  there  is  in  any  body  neither  more  nor  less  than  its 
natural  share,  it  does  not  discover  itself  to  our  senses  by 
any  effect.  The  action  of  the  rubber  upon  a  body  dis- 
turbs this  equilibrium  by  producing  a  deficiency  of  the 
fluid  in  one  place,  and  a  redundancy  in  another  place  ; 
and  a  mutual  attraction  of  the  particles  of  the  fluid  is 
excited  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  If  two  bodies  be  both 
overcharged,  the  electric  atmospheres  repel  each  other, 
and  both  bodies  recede  from  one  another  to  where  the 
fluid  is  less  dense  ;  the  electric  atmosphere  carrying  the 
bodies  along  with  it." 

But,  unfortunately  for  this  theory,  bodies  sup- 
posed to  be  devoid  of  the  electric  ether,  or  in  a 
negative  state,  are  found  to  repel  one  another 
precisely  like  those  containing  an  excess,  or  in  a 
positive  state.  This  fact  discredits  the  single- 
fluid  theory. 

If  the  electric  ether  be  a  material  medium,  it 
must  be  subjected  like  all  other  matter  to  the  same 
mechanical  law  of  "equal  action  and  reaction  in 
opposite  directions."  The  ether  occupying  the 
surface  of  the  rubber,  when  put  in  motion  trans- 
fers the  impulse  it  receives  to  the  similar  electric 
ether  occupying  the  rubbed  body ;  and,  being  an 
elastic  fluid,  recoils  by  impact,  and  verifies  the 
general  mechanical  law  of  the  development  of  two 


142         POSITIVE    AND    NEGATIVE    ELECTRICITY. 

equal  and  oppositely  directed  movements  :  as  when 
a  cannon-ball  is  put  in  motion  in  one  direction, 
an  equal  motion,  or  momentum,  is  imparted  to  the 
cannon  in  an  opposite  direction.  This  simple  ex- 
planation resolves  the  mystery  of  the  opposite 
movements  of  bodies  toward  and  from  one  another 
into  effects  produced  by  oppositely  directed  im- 
pulses of  mechanical  force.  This  is  the  obvious 
way  in  which  every  other  kind  of  matter  is  put  in 
motion.  By  roughening  one  end  of  a  glass  tube, 
leaving  the  other  end  smooth,  the  same  rubber 
passed  over  both  surfaces  receives  different  reac- 
tions, and  the  electric  ether  is  put  in  motion  in 
opposite  directions  on  the  surfaces  of  the  glass 
and  rubber. 

The  terms  positive  and  negative  are  also  ap- 
plied to  denote  the  two  opposite  delivering  and 
receiving  ends  of  electric  circuits,  or  poles  of 
voltaic  batteries  ;  which  are  marked  as  +  and  — . 
The  present  popular  theory  of  electricity  being 
based  on'  the  reciprocal  movements  of  bodies 
toward  and  from  one  another,  denoted  attraction 
and  repulsion,  it  remains  to  show  how  these  move- 
ments are  mechanically  produced,  instead  of 
ascribing  them  to  self-motive  and  self-directive 
powers  inherent  in  the  electric  ether,  or  in  other 
matter. 

In  accordance  with  the  reciprocal  movements 
of  portions  of  matter  toward  and  from  each 
other,  produced  by  transmitting  currents  through 


MOVEMENT  OF  PITH-BALLS  —  HOW  PRODUCED.       143 

them  in  similar  and  in  opposite  directions,  the 
following  suggestions  will  tend  to  explain  the 
peculiar  movements  of  the  pith-balls  of  electro- 
scopes :  — 

Considering  the  balls  of  electroscopes,  like  all 
other  portions  of  matter,  to  be  pervaded  and  sur- 
rounded by  the  universal  electric  medium  in  con- 
tinual vibratory  motion,  and  impinging  on  their 
exterior  surface  equally  in  every  direction,  and 
as  being  thus  held  in  an  electro-static  condition, 
—  their  movements  toward  and  from  electrically 
excited  bodies  are  produced  by  disturbing  this 
equilibrium  of  the  impulses  on  one  side  of  the 
balls,  whereby  the  impulses  acting  on  the  opposite 
side  predominate,  and  propel  the  balls  in  the  re- 
sultant direction  of  the  impinging  impulses.  All 
mechanical  modes  of  exciting  electricity  by  fric- 
tion, or  by  machines  of  various  kinds,  are  so  many 
expedients  resorted  to  for  disturbing  the  electro- 
static condition  of  molecules,  or  bodies  of  matter, 
and  developing  resultant  movements  of  them,  —  as 
has  been  previously  described. 

The  impulse  from  the 
hand,  imparted  to  move 
a  rubber  over  a  piece  of 
glass,  or  sealing-wax,  puts 
in  motion  the  electric 
ether  in  circulating  cur- 
rents about  them,  which 
induce  the  circulation  of 


144  CLOSED    CIRCUIT    ABOUT    THE    BALLS. 

currents  in  similar  directions  about  the  nearest 
sides  of  the  balls  of  electroscopes  brought  near 
these  excited  substances,  as  represented  by  B  c, 
in  Fig.  55  ;  precisely  as  an  excited  magnet  in- 
duces currents  in  similar  directions  about  the 
nearest  sides  of  pieces  of  iron,  and  develops  recip- 
rocal attraction  between  them.  On  coming  gently 
in  contact  with  the  excited  body  A,  an  extended 
closed  circuit  is  instantaneously  made  about  them 
all,  as  delineated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  56,  and 


Fig.  56. 


conjoins  them  as  one  electrode.  In  this  state  they 
will  remain  united,  if  the  balls  do  not  elastically 
rebound  from  contact  with  A,  and  leave  an  inter- 
vening space  between  them,  —  as  occurs  when  the 
brass  balls  rebound  from  the  vibrating  sides  of  the 
bells  of  an  electrical  chime. 

At  the  instant  of  the  rebound  the  single  closed 
circuit  is  broken,  and  is  resolved  into  three  distinct 
closed  circuits,- whose  currents  move  in  opposite 
directions  about  the  adjacent  sides  of  each  of  the 
three  balls,  B  c  A,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in 

ig.  57;  with  a  consequent  repulsion  between  all 


TESTS    OF    ELECTRIC    EXCITATION.  145 

three  of  them.  If  the  balls  B  c,  excited  by  con- 
tact with  a  piece  of  rubbed  amber,  A,  or  sealing- 
wax,  Fig.  57,  and  while  repelled  therefrom  after 
contact,  be  brought  near  a  piece  of  rubbed  glass, 
they  are  attracted  thereby,  because  the  vitreous 
currents  circulate  in  opposite  directions  to  those 
about  the  amber. 


Fig-  57- 

The  reverse  direction  of  the  current  about  the 
glass  (which  takes  the  place  of  A)  coincides  with 
the  currents  about  B  and  c,  with  the  result  of 
reciprocal  attraction  between  the  three. 

In  tracing  out  the  movements  of  the  balls  of 
electroscopes  toward  and  from  each  other,  as  tests 
of  electric  excitation,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
the  original  mechanical  causes  of  their  movements 
are  the  axial  and  orbital  revolutions  of  the  planets, 
which  combine  to  produce  the  various  resultant 
motions  of  electrodes,  —  as  has  been  previously 
illustrated,  —  and  the  revolving  movements  of 
various  mechanisms  by  the  reciprocal  actions 
between  different  directed  currents.1 

1  As  a  further  experimental  illustration  of  the  combined  axial  and 
orbital  revolutions  of  the  solar  system,  the  rotation  of  the  disc  of  a  Gy- 
roscope affords  an  instructive  example. 

10 


146  SPEED    OF    ELECTRIC    ACTION. 


VARIED    VELOCITIES    IN     THE    TRANSMISSION    OF     ME- 
CHANICAL  ACTION. 

* 

Vibration  of  light  transmitted  through  the 
electric  ether  in  infinite  space  is  found  to  be 
about  190,000  miles  per  second,  being  nearly 
1,000,000,000  feet  per  second. 

The  velocity  of  vibrations  of  sounds  in  air     .  .  1,150  feet  per  second. 

„        „  „  „       in  water  .  4,160    „  „ 

„        „  „  „       in  wood  .  12,000    „  „ 

„         „  „  „       iron  wire  .  15,000    „  „ 

The  velocity  of  transmission  of  currents  in 
closed  circuits,  through  short  wires  of  a  large  size, 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  light.  The  velocity 
is  greatly  diminished  in  passing  through  ordinary 
telegraph  wires.  The  diminution  is  nearly  in  the 
ratio  of  the  squares  of  the  increased  distances, 
and  inversely  as  the  size  of  the  conductor.  With 
a  fine  wire  the  current  is  not  only  interrupted, 
but  molecular  vibrations  are  produced  so  intense 
as  to  disintegrate  the  wire  itself. 

It  appears,  by  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Walker 
of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  that  the  velocity 
of  the  transmission  of  electric  currents  between  a 
telegraph  station  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  Phila- 
delphia, was  about  18,700  miles  per  second. 
Others  have  calculated  a  higher  velocity.  "  A 
communication  by  telegraph  between  Bombay  and 
London  has  been  made  and  answered  in  thirty- 
three  seconds."  "  A  perceptible  portion  of  a 
second  is  occupied  in  transmitting  a  telegraphic 
signal  across  the  Atlantic." 


ELECTRO-MOTIVE    POWER.  147 

TRANSMISSION  OF  MOTIVE  POWER  TO  A  DISTANCE 
THROUGH  CONDUCTING  WIRES  FOR  OPERATING  MA- 
CHINERY. 

Some  interesting  experiments  were  made  about 
thirty  years  ago  for  transmitting  power  from 
motors  to  machines  through  telegraph  wires,  as 
a  substitute  for  driving-bands,  ropes,  and  lines  of 
shafting. 

A  joint-stock  company  in  the  city  of  Providence 
attempted  to  utilize  the  electric  ether  as  a  medium 
for  distributing  motive-power.  A  steam-engine 
was  employed  to  turn  a  great  magneto-electric 
machine  for  putting  in  motion  the  electric  ether, 
and  thereby  utilizing  it  effectively  at  remote  dis- 
tances. It  was  supposed  that  the  power  of  distant 
water-falls  might  be  thus  rendered  available  for 
workshops  in  cities ;  as  the  clicking  armatures  are 
practically  worked  in  distant  telegraph  offices. 

The  company  succeeded  so  well  in  utilizing 
this  mode  of  transmitting  power  from  the  motor 
to  machines  in  a  workshop,  that  they  were  led  to 
believe  they  had  obtained  more  power  than  was 
imparted  by  the  steam-engine  to  turn  the  magneto- 
electric  machine ;  and  that  consequently  they  had 
made  "  a  gain  of  power,"  and  had  secured  "  Per- 
petual Motion."  But  the  pockets  of  the  share- 
holders, instead  of  being  filled,  were  drained  by 
the  machine,  to  which  was  given  the  burlesque 
name  of  "  Hifalutm." 

The  labors  of  this  company,  however,  were  not 


148       TENUITY    AND    VELOCITY    OF    ELECTRICITY. 

entirely  lost ;  for  they  constructed  a  powerful  mag- 
neto-electric machine,  for  ringing  the  alarm  bells 
for  the  Fire  Department  in  the  city  of  Boston. 
This  machine  was  operated  by  the  water-power  of 
the  Cochituate  Aqueduct.  The  electro-motive 
power  was  transmitted  through  telegraph  wires, 
detaching  weights,  which,  in  descending,  rang  the 
bells  for  a  fire-alarm.  In  this  way  originated  the 
admirable  system  of  Telegraphic  Fire-Alarms. 

TENUITY  AND  VELOCITY  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  ETHER. 

Momentum  is  the  combined  force  of  velocity 
and  mass.  If  therefore,  as  in  the  electric  ether, 
there  is  great  tenuity,  there  must  be  a  compen- 
sating increase  of  velocity  to  produce  a  like  result. 
A  swiftly  projected  cannon-ball  is  the  equivalent 
of  a  ponderous  mass  with  a  slow  motion.  Light 
particles  of  sand  driven  swiftly  against  flint  glass 
rapidly  cut  away  its  surface.  The  hand,  by  turning 
an  electric  machine,  may  thereby  charge  a  battery, 
whose  force  will  disintegrate  steel  wire,  and  send 
the  light  of  an  electric  spark  to  the  distance  of  the 
moon  in  a  second  and  one  third  of  time.  The 
voice  transmitted  through  the  telephone  outstrips 
in  speed  "  the  winged  couriers  of  the  air."  Ar- 
'chimedes  proposed  theoretically  wondrous  things 
with  his  lever,  could  he  but  find  a  fulcrum.1 

1  This  speed  of  transmission  by  electro-magnetic  action  appears  to 
have  been  anticipated  by  Galen  as  the  medium  of  communicating 
thoughts;  and  most  remarkably  by  Lucretius,  in  his  treatise  "  De  Natura 
Rerum,"  published  before  the  Christian  era.  Addisnn  gives  an  inter- 


VELOCITY    AN    EQUIVALENT    OF    POWER.          149 

Were  it  practicable  to  employ  the  same  swift 
velocity  in  terrestrial  mechanics  as  in  celestial, 
and  to  make  use  of  a  thread  capable  of  lifting  one 
pound  with  the  swiftness  of  light  (190,000  miles  per 
second),  this  single  thread  would  serve  to  transmit 
1,800,000  horse-power;  being  more  than  sufficient 
to  operate  all  the  machinery  in  Great  Britain.1 

esting  extract  from  the  book  of  Lucretius  in  "The  Guardian,"  No.  119, 
and  in  "  The  Spectator,"  No.  231,  as  follows  : — 

"  Lucretius  gives  an  account  of  the  correspondence  between  two 
friends  by  the  help  of  a  certain  loadstone,  which  had  such  a  virtue  in  it 
that,  if  it  touched  two  needles,  one  of  the  needles  when  so  touched  began 
to  move,  and  the  other  at  a  great  distance  moved  at  the  same  time,  and 
in  the  same  manner.  The  two  friends,  being  each  of  them  possessed  of 
one  of  these  needles,  made  a  kind  of  dial-plate,  with  the  twenty-four 
letters  inscribed  thereon,  as  the  hours  of  the  day  are  marked  on  a  dial- 
plate.  Then  they  fixed  one  of  the  needles  on  each  dial-plate,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  turn  around  without  impediment  over  the  four-and-twenty 
letters.  They  agreed  to  separate  from  one  another  into  distant  countries, 
and  withdraw  themselves  punctually  into  their  closets  at  a  certain  hour 
of  the  day,  and  to  converse  with  one  another  by  means  of  their  invention. 
To  write  any  thing  to  his  friend,  he  directed  his  needle  to  each  letter 
that  formed  the  words,  making  a  little  pause  at  the  end  of  words  and 
sentences,  to  avoid  confusion.  The  friend  at  the  same  time  saw  his  own 
sympathetic  needle  moving  itself  to  every  letter  which  the  needle  of  his 
correspondent  pointed  at.  By  this  means  they  talked  together,  and  con- 
veyed their  thoughts  to  one  another  in  an  instant  over  mountains  and 
seas." 

Magnetic  needles,  mounted  as  described  by  Lucretius,  are  now  actu- 
ally used  in  operating  Wheatstone's  telegraph  for  transmitting  commu- 
nications across  oceans. 

1  The  system  of  high  speed  for  transmitting  power  from  motors  to 
machines  is  now  introduced  with  success,  and  economy  in  cost  of  mate- 
rial, by  substituting  light  belts  and  ropes  for  massive  iron  shafts.  By 
doubling  the  velocity  of  transmission  of  action  to  overcome  a  uniform 
resistance  (like  that  of  gravitation)  in  a  given  time,  a  fourfold  effect  is 
produced  ;  for  the  double  force  acts  in  half  the  time  against  half  the 
uniform  resistance.  Thus  by  doubling  the  velocity  of  a  ball  projected 
upward,  it  ascends  fourfold  higher.  On  this  basis  is  established  the 
rule  of  the  increase  of  effect  being  produced  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares 
of  the  increased  velocities. 


I5O  EXTENT    OF    SOLAR    ACTION. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

EXTENT  OF  SOLAR  ACTION  TRANSMITTED  TO  THE 
SURFACE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


'T^HE  exciting  forces  of  the  planets  being 
uniform,  produce  a  corresponding  uniform 
reaction  as  sunshine  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  reflection  and  radiation  of  solar  light  and 
heat  from  the  earth's  surface  nearly  equalize  the 
degree  of  excitation  in  the  same  localities  during 
a  series  of  years  ;  so  that  the  sunshine  is  not 
absorbed  permanently  within  the  earth,  but  is 
reflected  and  radiated,  Sustaining  the  continual 
vibration  of  the  surrounding  electric  ether.  The 
excess  of  solar  excitation  incident  on  the  torrid 
zone  is  diffused  by  the  molecular  vibration  of  the 
atmosphere  and  the  ocean-waters  toward  the 
polar  regions. 

The  continual  transmission  of  sunshine  to  the 
surface  of  our  planet  during  infinite  ages,  although 
reflected  and  'diffused  throughout  space,  has  left  its 
impress  on  the  solid  rocks  by  mechanical  action 
and  attrition,  caused  by  vibratory  impulses  imparted 
to  the  winds  and  ocean-waves.  The  rounded  peb- 
bles and  the  boulders  composing  beaches  and 


POWER    OF    SUNSHINE    IN    LIFTING   WATER.       151 

beds  of  torrents,  and  forming  strata  in  the  hill- 
sides and  plains,  were  sculptured  by  sunshine. 

The  power  of  sunshine  is  shown  in  the  raising 
of  waters  from  the  briny  seas,  to  form  inland  seas 
of  fresh  water,  high  above  the  level  of  the  oceans. 
In  order  to  appreciate  the  extent  of  the  hydrau- 
lic operations  in  the  mechanics  of  Nature,  we 
must  attempt  to  estimate  them.1 

By  concentrating  the  direct  sunshine  by  lenses 
or  reflectors  on  a  little  boiler,  sufficient  power  may 
be  obtained  to  operate  a  small  steam-engine.  It 
is  narrated  in  history  that  Archimedes  had  recourse 
to  reflecting  mirrors  for  setting  fire  to  a  hostile 
fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Syracuse. 

By  means  of  steam-engines,  man  utilizes  the  sun- 

1  During  a  summer  excursion  to  Niagara,  in  the  year  1841,  after 
viewing  the  Falls,  the  writer  became  interested  to  learn  the  amount  of 
water-power  there  developed. 

After  personally  making  the  attempt  to  sound  the  depths  of  the  rap- 
ids across  the  river,  and  realizing  the  difficulty  and  danger  by  losing  an 
anchor,  recourse  was  had  to  the  professional  services  of  an  engineer  in 
that  vicinity.  An  accurate  survey  was  then  accomplished  of  the  quantity 
of  water  daily  flowing  in  the  river.  An  account  and  map  of  this  survey 
was  published  in  Silliman's  "Journal  of  Science,"  in  April,  1844;  being 
the  first  systematic  measurement,  if  not  the  only  one,  made  of  the  volume 
of  water  and  force  of  that  mighty  cataract.  By  this  survey  it  was  found 
that  701,000  tons  of  water  per  minute  are  continually  pouring  over  the 
precipice  of  rocks  at  Niagara,  with  a  nearly  perpendicular  descent  of 
1 60  feet,  and  with  a  mechanical  force  of  6,800,000  horse-power. 

The  whole  descent  from  the  level  of  Lake  Erie  to  the  sea  being  about 
563  feet,  the  force  of  this  stream  is  24,000,000  horse-power.  To  this 
is  to  be  added  numerous  great  tributary  rivers  in  its  course,  and  the 
descent  of  the  water-fall  from  lofty  clouds  in  rain-drops.  To  maintain 
the  flow  of  this  single  river  there  is  employed  unceasingly  nearly  three 
hundred  millions  horse-power,  estimated  in  foot-pounds.  This  example 
affords  a  faint  idea  of  the  extent  of  solar  power  constantly  exerted  in 
raising  water  to  irrigate  our  earth. 


152  EXCITABILITY    OF    WATER. 

shine  transmitted  to  the  leaves  of  plants,  which 
is  retained  in  an  electro-static  condition  in  the 
organic  formations  of  fuel.  The  reaction  of  the 
excitation  transmitted  to  this  carbonaceous  fuel 
takes  place  during  combustion. 

EXCITABILITY  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  ETHER  OCCUPYING  THE 
SPACES  BETWEEN  PARTICLES  OF  WATER,  AND  OF 
OTHER  SUBSTANCES. 

The  slightest  mechanical  disturbance  of  particles 
of  water  puts  in  motion  the  all-pervading  electric 
ether,  which  transfers  the  mechanical  action  by  its 
own  motion.  A  basin  of  water  serves  as  an  elec- 
trical machine,  equally  well  as  the  little  tank  of 
water  with  the  paddle-wheel  used  by  Mr.  Joule 
and  others  as  a  test  of  the  electric  excitation  de- 
noted heat. 

By  merely  dashing  the  fingers  into  the  water,  or 
by  pouring  it  from  one  vessel  into  another,  the 
excited  electric  ether  causes  bubbles  to  spring  up 
into  beautiful  hemispheres,  which  dance  over  the 
undulating  surface. 

Every  water-fall  excites  bubbles  to  spring  up  as 
spray  into  the  air,  and  reciprocally  to  repel  one 
another  like  the  pith-balls  of  electroscopes.  The 
minute  bubbles  form  the  mists  hovering  above 
cascades,  and  reflect  the  sunbeams  in  overarching 
rainbows. 

The  particles  of  water,  being  ever-ready  elec- 
trodes, and  freely  movable  in  a  liquid  state,  yield 
to  the  slightest  vibration  of  the  electric  ether.  It 


VIBRATIONS    OF    PARTICLES    OF    WATER.         153 


is  continually  changing  from  a  vapory  to  a  liquid 
state,  and  from  a  liquid  to  the  solid  polarized  state 
of  crystals  of  ice,  yielding  to  the  alternate  predomi- 
nance of  the  orbital  and  axial  forces  in  summer 
and  winter.  It  is  on  account  of  this  peculiar  ex- 
citability that  water  in  continual  motion  is  so 
extensively  diffused  over  our  planet. 

The  vibratory  movements  of  the  particles  of 
steam  are  represented  by  rapid  vibrations  of  nu- 
merous light  pith-balls 
placed  beneath  a  bell- 
glass,  and  excited  by 
the  electric  action 
transmitted  between 
two  brass  balls ;  as  in 
Fig.  58.  The  pith- 
balls  are  first  impelled 


toward  the  upper  brass 
ball,  and  then  toward 
the  lower  one,  with 
such  rapidity  as  to  re- 
semble a  misty  vapor 
filling  the  jar. 

The  similar  quick 
vibrations  of  steam 
in  a  cylinder  beneath  Fi*' s8* 

a  piston  drive  out  the  particles  of  air  therefrom, 
and  occupy  their  places,  —  impinging  against  the 
under  side  of  the  piston,  and  counterbalancing 
the  force  of  the  particles  of  air  impinging  upon 


154  VIBRATORY    IMPULSES    OF     AIR. 

the  upper  side.  On  stopping  the  vibration  of 
the  particles  of  steam  by  a  jet  of  cold  water,  they 
collapse,  like  the  balls  of  electroscopes  when  the 
excitation  is  withdrawn.  A  cubic  foot  of  steam  is 
thus  reduced  to  occupy  the  space  of  only  one 
cubic  inch  of  condensed  water,  leaving  the  remain- 
der of  the  space  a  vacuum.  The  cubic  inch  of 
water,  and  the  additional  cold  condensing  water 
with  the  air  it  contains,  is  extracted  by  the  air- 
pump  of  a  condensing  engine,  while  the  vibrations 
of  particles  of  the- air  continue  to  act  against  the 
upper  side  of  the  piston  with  a  resultant  force  of 
fifteen  pounds  on  each  inch. 

The  vibrating  particles  of  air,  put  in  motion  by 
the  voice,  impinge  against  the  little  disc  or  piston 
of  a  phonograph,  with  sufficient  force  to  indent  a 
sheet  of  tin-foil  by  every  vibrating  impulse. 

The  particles  of  steam  are  put  into  similar  vi- 
bration by  the  excitation  of  heat  in  a  furnace 
beneath  a  boiler,  with  a  force  acting  against  the 
inner  sides  of  the  boiler  sufficiently  to  burst  it. 

By  intensifying  the  excitation  of  all  organic  sub- 
stances by  heat,  the  molecules  of  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen  are  made  to  vibrate  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  be  driven  off,  leaving  the  skeleton  of  all 
organic  formations  in  carbon,  with  the  organic 
structure  complete, — as  manifest  in  wood  charcoal. 

By  increasing  the  intensity  of  vibrations  of  the 
residuary  charcoal,  they  excite  by  contact  the 
adjacent  molecules  of  oxygen  in  the  surrounding 


SOURCE    OF    WIND    AND    WATER    POWER.         155 

air,  sufficiently  to  become  electro-magnetically  uni- 
ted with  them,  so  as  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas  by  the 
process  of  combustion,  with  the  re-development 
of  the  light  and  heat  previously  transmitted  to  the 
leaves  of  plants  to  consolidate  the  charcoal. 

THE     PLANETARY     FORCES     DIFFUSED     BY    THE     ELECTRIC 
ETHER,    AS    SOURCES    OF    WIND    AND    WATER    POWER. 

To  facilitate  the  general  diffusion  of  vibrations 
of  sunshine  put  in  motion  by  the  revolving  planets, 
the  four  most  readily  excitable  and  freely  movable 
kinds  of  molecules  (oxygen,  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
and  carbon),  in  gaseous  states,  are  selected  for  the 
atmospheric  covering  of  the  planet.  Three-fourth 
parts  of  the  atmosphere  are  constituted  of  nitrogen, 
combined  with  nearly  one-fourth  part  of  oxygen. 
About  one  per  cent  of  the  atmosphere  is  composed 
of  molecules  of  hydrogen  and  of  carbon  combined 
with  oxygen,  constituting  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
watery  vapors.  The  vibrations  of  sunshine  per- 
meate these  fluid  transparent  molecules,  and  im- 
pinge directly  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  without 
exciting  their  molecular  vibration  to  the  degree 
recognized  as  heat ;  as  is  manifest  by  the  coldness 
of  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
vibratory  action  impinging  on  the  terraqueous 
globe  is  expended  in  communicating  vibration  to 
its  particles,  manifested  either  as  heat,  or  reflected 
as  light  and  colors. 

When  a  portion  of  air  in  contact  with  a  vibrat- 


156       PLANETARY    FORCES   EXCITE  WIND-POWER. 

ing  body  begins  to  vibrate  also,  it  occupies  more 
space  than  other  surrounding  particles  of  air. 
Thus  rendered  specifically  lighter,  it  ascends 
buoyantly  against  the  action  of  gravitation.  In 
this  simple  movement  the  orbital  force  predomi- 
nates. The  axial  force  propels  other  particles  of 
air  into  the  places  left  by  the  ascending  particles ; 
and  the  particles  of  air  thus  put  in  motion  impinge 
against  the  outspread  sails  on  the  water  and  on 
the  land,  and  render  their  impulses  available  as 
WIND-POWER. 

Beneath  the  earth's  transparent  atmosphere, 
nearly  four-fifths  of  the  planet  is  covered  by  seas 
and  lakes,  composed  of  eight-ninth  parts  of  mole- 
cules of  oxygen  and  one-ninth  part  of  molecules 
of  hydrogen.  Particles  of  water  are  readily  vi- 
brated by  sunshine,  and,  expanded  into  steamy 
vapors,  they  occupy  more  space  than  the  particles 
of  air.  Rendered  specifically  lighter  than  the  air 
above  them,  they  buoyantly  ascend  and  are  wafted 
by  the  winds  over  the  dry  lands.  After  ascending 
to  the  cold  upper  regions  of  the  sky,  their  vibra- 
tion being  diminished,  they  become  polarized,  as 
minute  electro-magnets ;  with  the  result  of  a  recip- 
rocal attraction  between  them,  and  union  in  falling 
rain-drops,  which  descend  from  mountains  and  hill- 
sides, and  flow  through  the  vales  on-  their  return 
to  the  sea,  and  are  utilized  on  their  way  as  WATER- 
POWER. 


SOLID,    LIQUID,    AND     AERIFORM    STATES.       157 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

'  THE  SOLID,  LIQUID,  AND  AERIFORM  CONDITIONS  OF 
MATTER  DETERMINED  BY  THE  EXTENT  OF  ITS  MO- 
LECULAR VIBRATION. 

HPHE  component  particles  of  the  air  and  waters 
are  the  only  substances  that  are  commonly  in 
a  fluid  state.  Every  kind  of  elementary  matter  has 
been  found  to  be  reducible  to  solid,  or  crystalline, 
formations,  by  bringing  the  particles  together  by 
extreme  pressure,  while  their  vibrations  are  reduced 
to  an  extreme  degree  by  frigorific  mixtures,  as  by 
contact  with  frozen  carbonic-acid  gas,  at  a  temper- 
ature of  1 39°  below  zero  of  Fahr.  The  changes  of 
the  seasons  produce  the  various  changes  of  water, 
from  crystals  to  liquid  and  aeriform  states.  At  the 
ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  mercury 
remains  liquid,  but  becomes  crystallized,  or  frozen, 
at  39°  below  zero  of  Fahr. 

All  other  solid  crystalline  metals  may  be  deemed 
frozen,  if  they  are  considered  relatively  to  the 
temperature  at  which  their  component  molecules 
become  liquefied  by  heat.  As  the  temperature  on 
the  earth's  surface  is  rarely  reduced  to  39°  below 
the  zero  of  Fahr.,  molecules  of  mercury,  when  not 


158  VIBRATORY    STATES    OF    MOLECULES. 

polarized  with  molecules  of  other  kinds  of  element- 
ary substances,  exist  in  a  liquid  state,  and  are  hence 
denoted  "  quicksilver."  By  artificially  intensifying 
the  vibrations  of  the  molecules  of  quicksilver  to 
680°  Fahr.,  they  yield  to  the  vibration  of  the 
electric  ether  intervening  between  the  molecules, 
and  become  expanded  and  diffused  in  invisible 
vapor,  floating  in  the  air  like  steam. 

This  example  of  the  three  states  of  existence  of 
molecules  —  in  solid  crystals,  in  a  liquid  state,  and 
in  an  aeriform  state  —  illustrates  the  three  different 
conditions  of  existence  of  all  other  kinds  of  element- 
ary matter ;  not  even  excepting  the  once  termed 
"permanent  gases"  —  such  as  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
and  nitrogen  —  which  have  been  recently  liquefied 
and  solidified  by  extreme  cold  and  pressure.  The 
boiling  point  of  substances,  or  their  evaporable 
temperature,  appears  to  indicate  the  commence- 
ment of  the  extreme  molecular  vibration,  which 
separates  the  component  parts  of  substances  be- 
yond the  range  of  their  reciprocal  electro-magnetic 
attraction. 

As  previously  described,  the  vibration  of  the 
molecules  of  quicksilver  increases  uniformly  from 
the  freezing  to  the  boiling  points ;  as  is  evidenced 
by  a  uniform  expansion  in  the  tubes  of  thermom- 
eters. The  increase  of  vibration  of  water,  de- 
veloped (as  that  of  all  other  bodies)  by  friction 
and  percussion,  has  been  adopted  as  a  useful  test 
of  the  degree  of  heat  producible  by  a  definite 


FOOT-POUNDS    TEST    OF    HEAT.  159 

amount  of  mechanical  action,  estimated  in  foot- 
pounds. Ice  may  be  melted  by  the  excitation  of 
friction  upon  its  surface  ;  and  water  may  be  simi- 
larly heated  by  friction.  In  this  way,  Meyer,  Joule, 
and  other  experimenters  have  demonstrated  that 
the  mechanical  force  developed  by  the  descent  of 
a  weight  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy-two  pounds 
one  foot,  excites  one  degree  of  heat  in  a  pound  of 
water. 

MOLECULAR  VIBRATION,  CONSTITUTING  HEAT,  CONSID- 
ERED AS  AN  EQUIVALENT  OF  MECHANICAL  ACTION 
IN  FOOT-POUNDS. 

The  increase  of  the  heat  of  water  only  one  degree, 
from  2 1 2°  to  21 3°,  converts  it  into  steam ;  causing 
the  particles  to  occupy  seventeen  hundred  fold 
more  space,  against  an  atmospheric  pressure  of 
fifteen  pounds  on  each  square  inch  of  surface.  It 
has  been  ascertained  also  that,  after  the  particles 
of  water  are  heated  to  212°,  nine  hundred  and 
sixty-seven  times  more  heat  is  required  to  raise 
the  same  water  only  one  more  degree,  than  will 
raise  its  temperature  from  39°  to  40°.  The  sur- 
prising extent  of  latent  vibratory  action  is  shown 
by  multiplying  967  by  772  foot-pounds  =  746,524 
foot-pounds.  The  particles  of  steam,  by  the  in- 
tensity of  their  vibration,  displace  the  particles 
of  the  atmosphere  (with  its  reaction  of  more  than 
one  ton  on  each  square  foot  of  surface),  and  occupy 
its  place. 

This  967°  of  heat  remains  latent,  as  tested  by 


I6O  LATENT    HEAT    OF    STEAM. 

the  mercury  in  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer.  The 
latent  heat  of  nearly  1000°  in  steam  becomes  man- 
ifest on  its  condensation  into  water,  by  raising  the 
temperature  of  about  sixfold  its  weight  of  water 
from  50°  to  2 1 2°. 

By  this  standard  of  mechanical  action  for  pro- 
ducing vibration  of  particles  of  water,  estimates 
have  been  made,  in  equivalent  foot-pounds,  of  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  convert  a  pound  of  ice 
into  steam.  Taking  as  a  basis  the  force  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  i° 
Fahr.  (Joule's  equivalent),  the  following  calcula- 
tions have  been  made  :  — 

To  excite  vibration  of  the  particles  of  i  Ib.  of  ice  to 

the  degree  of  liquidity,  requires 110,396  foot  Ibs. 

To  excite  i  Ib.  of   water   from  32°  to   212°,  that  is, 

180°  of  increase  of  heat  X  772  foot  Ibs.,  requires     .     138,960  foot  Ibs. 

To  excite  i  Ib.  of  water  at  212°  into  steam,  that  is  967 

X  772  foot  Ibs.  requires 746,524  foot  Ibs. 

The  total  mechanical  action  of 995,880  foot  Ibs. 

is  therefore  the  equivalent  of  the  heat  requisite  to 
convert  one  pound  of  ice  into  steam  ;  which  being 
divided  by  33,000  =  30^  horse  power. 

This  theoretical  estimate  exhibits  the  wonderful 
extent  of  mechanical  action  transmitted  by  the  vi- 
bratory motion  of  the  electric  medium  as  sunshine. 

The  force  required  to  convert  one  pound  of 
water  from  its  gases  to  ice,  has  been  compared  to 
the  descent  of  a  ton  down  three  precipices  with  a 
total  fall  of  2,850  feet.1 

1  "  Heat  as  a  mode  of  Motion,"  p.  168.  The  "  latent  heat  of  evapora- 
tion of  I  Ib.  of  water,  from  and  at  212°,"  is  given  by  Mr.  Rankine  (Treat- 


STEAM-BOILERS    ELECTRIC    MACHINES.          l6l 


SUDDEN    DISAPPEARANCE    OF    HEAT    FROM     CONDENS- 
ING   STEAM. 

Although  most  of  the  latent  heat  of  steam 
becomes  manifest  by  condensation  in  the  pipes  of 
a  heating  apparatus,  yet  in  operating  high-pressure 
boilers  a  very  sudden  and  mysterious  disappear- 
ance occurs  ;  as  is  manifest  by  holding  the  hand 
in  front  of  the  steam  issuing  from  a  gauge-cock, 
with  a  pressure  of  seventy  pounds  to  the  inch. 
About  thirty  years  ago  an  engineer,  in  reaching 
out  his  hand  to  adjust  a  leaking  valve,  felt  electric 
shocks,  and  saw  electric  sparks.  He  narrated  the 
fact  to  Mr.  Armstrong;  who  constructed  a  small 
insulated  steam-boiler  for  experimental  use,  and 
in  the  account  of  his  experiments  said :  "  This 
boiler  excited  tenfold  more  powerful  electricity 
than  can  be  produced  by  any  frictional  electric 
machine  hitherto  made,  giving  out  sparks  more 
than  a  foot  long."  In  this  way,  steam-boilers 
were  introduced  to  professors  of  science  under 
the  new  name  of  •"  Hydro-Electric  Machines." 
Armstrong  and  Faraday  ascribed  the  electric 
excitation  "  to  the  friction  of  the  particles  of  water 

ise  on  Steam-Engine,  p.  300)  as  "745,812  foot-pounds;"  and  the  "total 
heat  of  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon  "as  "  11,194,000 foot-pounds." 
By  this  estimate,  one  pound  of  coal  should  evaporate  about  fifteen  pounds 
of  water.  Mr.  Rankine  adopts  the  estimate  of  combustion  of  one  pound 
of  hydrogen  at  14,500  thermal  units  of  772  foot-pounds  =  47,888,704 
foot-pounds,  —  being  fourfold  more  exciting  than  one  pound  of  carbon. 
By  ordinary  furnaces  of  steam-engines  only  a  small  portion  of  the  theo- 
retical power  is  practically  attained. 

II 


1 62  ELECTRICITY    IN    STEAMY    VAPORS. 

against  the  internal  sides  of  the  discharge  pipes." 
It  was  affirmed  at  that  time  that  "  evaporation  and 
condensation  of  water,  independently  of  friction, 
does  not  produce  electric  excitation,  and  we 
must  look  to  some  other  source  for  the  origin  of 
lightning." 

It  occurred  to  the  writer  that  if  properly  tested, 
electric  action  and  reaction  being  equal,  the  con- 
densing steam  out  in  the  air  would  exhibit  this 
reaction  on  pointed  wires,  like  the  condensing 
vapors  of  thunder-clouds  on  lightning  rods.  He 
remembered  also  that,  on  the  discharge  of  steam 
from  volcanoes,  lightning  amid  the  vapors  is  seen 
above  their  summits  ;  that  atmospheric  electricity 
tips  the  spears  of  sentinels  on  lofty  watch-towers ; 
while  in  storms  the  masts  and  spars  of  vessels  are 
ablaze  with  the  "fires  of  St.  Elmo  and  St.  Anne," 
to  the  terror  of  superstitious  sailors. 

Ijt  had  long  been  known,  that  on  holding  the 
hand  in  a  jet  of  high-pressure  steam  from  a  gauge - 


Fig-   59' 


ELECTRIC    JAR    CHARGED    BY    STEAM.  163 

cock,  Fig.  59,  instead  of  the  sensation  of  scalding 
heat,  rather  a  cooling  breeze  was  felt.  The  heat 
of  the  steam  at  300°  Fahr.  disappears  so  instanta- 
neously, that  a  thermometer  held  in  it  indicates 
only  120° ;  showing  that  180°  of  the  heat  has  van- 
ished. The  question  occurred,  "  What  becomes 
of  all  the  heat  of  this  discharged  steam  ? "  This 
led  tq  a  course  of  experiments.  Forked  pointed 
wires  were  arranged  on  a  metallic  rod,  as  at  A, 
Fig.  59,  and  the  other  end  of  the  metallic  rod 
was  then  inserted  through  the  cover  of  the  elec- 
tric jar  B.  This  apparatus  was  held  in  front  of  the 
condensing  steam  from  a  boiler,  with  seventy-five 
pounds  pressure  to  the  inch.  The  coated  glass-jar 
received  and  retained  the  electric  excitation  trans- 
mitted from  the  steam  discharged  into  the  open 
air.  A  cold  day  was  selected  for  more  sudden  con- 
densation of  the  steam.  On  holding  the  pointed 
wires  in  front  of  the  jet  of  steam,  the  jar  was 
speedily  charged,  and  transmitted  a  shock  with  a 
bright  spark,  when  touched  by  the  finger.  The 
shocks  were  not  only  felt  through  the  arms  of 
the  experimenter,  but  also  through  the  knees  an.d 
feet  of  the  bystanders  on  the  brick  hearth  in  front 
of  the  boilers.1 

This  experiment  showed  the  general  diffusion 
of  the  electric  excitation  through  the  adjacent  air. 
The  workmen  amused  themselves  in  taking  shocks, 

1  An  account  of  the  experiment  was  published  in  Allen's  "  Philosophy 
of  Mechanics,"  p.  38,  in  1851. 


1 64  STEAM-POWER    AND    ELECTRIC-POWER. 

and  the  involuntary  contraction  of  their  muscles 
exhibited  the  actual  conversion  of  steam-power 
into  animal  motive-power.  While  this  was  a 
virtual  repetition  of  Franklin's  experiment  for 
showing  the  identity  of  lightning  and  electricity 
from  condensing  vapors  in  the  air,  it  further  re- 
vealed the  identity  of  the  latent  heat  of  steam  and 
electricity ;  and  that  this  motive-power  is  literally 
harnessed  to  our  "  Lightning  Trains." 

The  sudden  disappearance  of  the  extreme  heat 
of  a  sultry  summer-day  is  accounted  for  by  its 
conversion  into  electric  action,  either  by  quiet 
diffusion,  or  disruptive  flashes  of  lightning. 

AMOUNT     OF      HEAT     INSTANTANEOUSLY     DISPERSED 
FROM     CONDENSING    STEAM. 

The  total  heat  in  a  pound  of  steam  would 
render  a  pound  of  iron  red-hot,  if  it  could  be  trans- 
ferred to  it.  The  following  calculations  may  show 
the  great  extent  of  latent  heat  suddenly  diffused 
by  the  condensation  of  steam.  Estimating  the 
latent  heat  (not  indicated  by  the  thermometer)  of 
steam  under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  to 
be  about  966°,  and  the  additional  heat  at  300°  (the 
heat  of  steam  under  the  pressure  of  seventy-five 
pounds  to  the  inch),  there  appear  to  be  1,266°  of 
heat  embodied  in  the  steam  experimented  upon. 
If  from  this  extent  of  heat  be  deducted  the  resid- 
uary heat,  as  tested  by  the  thermometer  held  in 
the  jet  from  the  gauge-cock,  at  120°  Fahr.,  there 


STEAM-POWER    LOST    IN    ELECTRICITY.  165 

disappear  in  the  condensation  of  this  discharge 
1,146°  of  heat.  This  passes  off  with  the  speed  of 
light  to  the  upper  regions  of  the  sky.1 

1  These  facts  should  impress  on  engineers  the  importance  of  employ- 
ing all  available  means  of  preventing  the  radiation  of  heat  from  boilers 
and  cylinders,  by  non-conducting  materials  and  steam-jacketing.  And 
especially  should  their  attention  be  called  to  the  possible  loss  of  effective 
power  in  working  steam  expansively,  by  "cut-off  valves"  acting  at  mi- 
nute portions  of  the  stroke. 

If  the  whole  power  of  steam  of  seventy-five  pounds  pressure  is  instan- 
taneously diffused  into  electric  vibrations  and  currents,  by  suddenly 
expanding  into  the  open  air,  it  becomes  a  critical  question  how  far  this 
expansive  system  can  be  carried  advantageously,  and  without  loss* by  the 
conversion  into  electric  currents  of  the  heat  of  expanding  steam.  The 
sudden  disappearance  of  the  vibratory  action  of  heat  from  steamy  vapors 
in  the  sky  on  a  sultry  summer-day  affords  a  parallel  to  the  experiment 
described.  The  steam  rises  rapidly  from  the  surface  of  the  oceans  to 
the  upper  sky,  and,  being  there  relieved  from  compression,  expands  like 
the  compressed  steam  discharged  from  a  steam-boiler. 

This  experiment  shows  the  Protean  forms  in  which  the  vibration  of 
heat  is  diffused,  not  only  through  the  metallic  conduction  of  cylinders, 
pipes,  and  shaftings  connected  with  steam-boilers  and  engines,  but  also 
throughout  all  space.  We  thus  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  modes  in  which 
the  force  of  the  planets  is  diffused  through  the  universal  electric  ether, 
and  learn  what  an  important  part  this  ether  plays  in  transmitting  and 
modifying  their  mighty  power. 


1 66      MATTER,  MOLECULES,  AND  ATOMS. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

MATTER. 

THE     AXIAL     AND     ORBITAL  FORCE     OF     THE     REVOLVING 

PLANETS,    TRANSMITTED  BY    THE     UNIVERSAL     ETHER, 

IS      MODIFIED      BY      THE  MECHANISMS      OF       SIXTY-SIX 

KINDS    OF    ELEMENTARY  MOLECULES. 

l^EWTON  defines  matter  to  be  "An  aggrega- 
tion of  the  smallest  parts,  which  are  extended, 
and  strongly  connected  together  by  an  unknown 
power,  .  .  .  which  it  is  the  business  of  experimental 
philosophy  to  find  out."  ,  " 

Professor  Faraday  describes  a  molecule  as 
"  something  material,  having  a  specific  volume  ; 
upon  which  were  impressed,  at  the  creation,  certain 
powers,  that  have  given  to  it  from  that  time  to  the 
present  the  capability  of  constituting  the  different 
kinds  of  substances,  whose  properties  we  discover 
when  a  sufficient  number  of  atoms  are  combined 
together  into  molecular  groups.  .  .  .  The  powers 
of  matter  we  know  and  recognize  in  every  phe- 
nomenon of  creation ;  the  absolute  matter  in 
none." ]  Buscovich  defines  molecules  to  be  "  cen- 
tres of  forces." 

Molecules  are  aggregations  of  atoms  into  little 
masses,  as  this  term  literally  signifies. 

1  London  and  Edinburgh  Philosophical   Journal,   1844. 


MOLECULES    ARE    MACHINES.  167 

That  molecules  are  essentially  different  in  the 
number,  groupings,  and  arrangements  of  their 
atoms,  constituting  sixty-six  kinds  of  machines,  is 
manifest  by  their  various  weights  and  magnitudes. 
The  lightest  kind  of  molecule,  hydrogen,  has  been 
registered  in  tables  of  chemical  equivalents  at  the 
comparative  starting  point  of  i  ;  the  next  lightest, 
carbon,  6  ;  oxygen,  8  ;  up  to  a  molecule  oigold,  1 96  ; 
and  lead,  207. 

Each  kind  of  molecule  has  a  different  bulk  or 
volume,  and  each  is  a  perfect  machine  with  a 
differing  atomic  structure.  Each  serves  as  an 
electrode  and  current-changer,  receiving,  reflect- 
ing, modifying,  and  changing  the  direction  of  the 
electric  vibrations  and  currents,  continually  trans- 
mitted through  the  universal  ether. 

These  molecules,  in  turn,  are  electro-magnetically 
formed  into  symmetrical  angular  crystals,  and  into 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  species  of  mech- 
anisms of  plants  and  of  animals.  The  molecules 
incorporated  into  the  mechanisms  of  plants  serve 
as  food,  to  be  re -incorporated  into  the  mechanisms 
of  living  animals,  and  to  vitalize  them. 

The  electric  ether  being  universally  diffused, 
and  pervading  freely  all  bodies,  does  not  admit  of 
being  weighed,  as  there  seems  to  be  no  way  of 
producing  an  absolute  electric  vacuum. 

The  relative  weight of  each  of  the  sixty-six  kinds 
of  elementary  molecules  is  ascertained  ;  but  the  ab- 
solute weight  of  each  individual  molecule  is  not  as- 


168 


LIST    OF    ELEMENTARY    SUBSTANCES. 


certained,  for  the  reason  that  a  single  molecule  is  too 
minute  an  object  to  be  distinctly  seen,  or  handled. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  list  of  the  element- 
ary molecules,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order, 
with  their  relative  weights  as  compared  with  mole- 
cules of  hydrogen,  adopted  as  the  unit  standard 
of  comparison ;  and  hence  these  comparative 
weights  are  denoted  "chemical  equivalents." 

TABLE    OF    ELEMENTARY    SUBSTANCES    AND    OF    THEIR 
CHEMICAL    EQUIVALENTS. 


NAMES. 

Abbreviated 
Symbols. 

New  Atomic 
Weights. 

.y 

£  «5 

o£ 

<| 

sfc 

o 

NAMES. 

Abbreviated 
Symbols. 

New  Atomic 
Weights. 

Ijj 

<."§> 

s£ 

0 

ALUMINIUM  .  . 
ANTIMONY  .  .  . 
ARSENIC  .... 
BARIUM  

Al. 
Sb. 
As 
Ba. 

27.4 

122.  0 

75.0 
177.  0 

13-7 

122.  0 

75-0 

68.  c 

MANGANESE  .  . 
MERCURY  .  .  . 
MOLYBDENUM, 
NICKEL  

Mn. 
Hg- 
Mo. 

Ni. 

55.0 
200.  o 
96.0 

CO.O 

27.5 

1OO.O 

48.0 

2Q   ? 

BERYLLIUM,  or 
GLUCINIUM  .  . 
BISMUTH  .... 
BORON  
BROMINE  .... 

Be. 
Gl. 
Bi. 
B. 
Br 

1 

j  9-o 

209.0 
10.9 
80.0 

4-5 
209.0 
10.9 
80  o 

NIOBIUM,    or 
COLUMBIUM  .  . 
NITROGEN  .  .  . 
OSMIUM  
OXYGEN         • 

Nb. 
Cb. 
N. 
Os. 

o 

r 

J94.0 

14.0 
199.0 
16  o 

94.0 
14.0 

99-5 
8  o 

CADMIUM  .  .  . 
CAESIUM  .... 
CALCIUM  .... 
CARBON  

Cd. 
Cs. 
Ca. 
C. 

112.  0 

I33-° 
40.0 

12.  0 

56.0 
J33-° 

2O.O 

6.0 

PALLADIUM  .  . 
PHOSPHORUS  . 
PLATINUM  .  .  . 
POTASSIUM   .  . 

Pd. 
P. 
Pt. 
K 

106.5 
31.0 
197.4 

^Q.I  I 

53-25 
31.0 
98.7 

CERIUM  

Ce. 

92.O 

46.0 

RHODIUM  .  .  . 

Rh. 

IO4.O 

C2   0 

CHLORINE  .  .  . 
CHROMIUM  .  . 
COBALT  
COLUMBIUM,  or 

Cl. 
Cr. 
Co. 
Cb. 

35-5 
52-5 
59.0 

35-5 
26.25 
29.5 

RUBIDIUM  .  .  . 
RUTHENIUM.  . 
SELENIUM  .  .  . 
SILICON  

Rb. 
Ru. 
Se. 

Si. 

85.5 
104.0 

79-5 
28.0 

85-5 
52.0 

39-75 

Id.  O 

NIOBIUM  .  .  . 

Nb 

J94.o 

94.0 

As 

log  o 

1  08  o 

COPPER  ... 

Cu 

6-3.4 

•?i  ^ 

SODIUM 

Na 

DIDYMIUM  .  .  . 
ERBIUM  ..... 

D. 
E 

96.0 

I  12.6 

48.0 

STRONTIUM 
SULPHUR 

Sr. 

s 

87.5 

72  O 

43-8 

FLUORINE  .  .  . 
GALLIUM  .... 
GLUCINIUM,  or 
BERYLLIUM  .  . 
GOLD 

F. 

Gl. 
Be. 
Au 

19.0 
j   9-° 

19.0 

4-5 
08  o 

TANTALUM. 
TELLURIUM 
TERBIUM  .  . 
THALLIUM  . 

Ta. 
Te. 
Tr. 
Tl. 
Th 

182.0 
129.0 
148.5 
204.0 

182.0 
64.5 
74.2 
204.0 

HYDROGEN  .  .  . 

H. 

2.O 

I.O 

TIN  

Sn. 

118.0 

CQ.O 

INDIUM  .  . 

In 

114.  O 

TITANIUM 

Ti 

IODINE  
IRIDIIJM  

I. 
Ir. 

127.0 
107.2 

127.0 
98  6 

TUNGSTEN  . 
URANIUM 

W. 

Ur 

184.0 

92.O 

IRON  
LANTHANUM  . 
LEAD  

Fe. 
La. 
Ph, 

56.0 
139.0 
207.0 

28.0 
69-5 

lO^.C 

VANADIUM. 
YTTRIUM  .  . 
ZINC  

V. 
Yt. 
Zn. 

51.0 
92.5 

6;.o 

5I.O 
4625 

32-5 

LITHIUM  .... 

MAGNESIUM  .  . 

Li. 
Mg. 

7.0 
24-3 

7.0 
12.15 

ZIRCONIUM   .  . 

Zr. 

890 

44-75 

RELATIVE  WEIGHTS  OF  MOLECULES. 


169 


The  better  to  adapt  the  fractional  parts  of  atomic 
heights  to  the  standard  of  a  molecule  of  hydrogen, 
the  latter  has  been  nominally  doubled ;  as  shown 
by  the  difference  in  the  lists  of  the  old  and  new 
symbols  in  the  foregoing  table. 

The  differences*  of  atomic  weights  and  magni- 
tudes of  the  several  kinds  of  molecules  demon- 
strate their  existence  as  varied  atomic  structures, 
or  machines ;  and  their  several  peculiar  functions 
are  evidences  of  intelligence  in  the  Constructor 
of  molecules,  rather  than  in  the  created  molecules 
themselves.  As  Professor  Dana  sagaciously  af- 
firms, "  Molecular  law  is  the  profoundest  expres- 
sion of  the  Divine  will." 

Molecules,  although  too  minute  to  be  separately 
weighed  and  measured,  are  large 
enough  to  be  shadowed  by  solar 
microscopes,  while  moving  on  a 
sheet  of  glass  in  the  process  of 
crystallization. 

The  relative  weights  and  mag- 
nitudes of  the  several  kinds  of 
molecules  are  ascertained  by  de- 
composing various  compound 
substances,  such  as  water,  car- 
bonic-acid gas,  &c.  In  forming 
compounds,  molecules  are  sup- 
posed to  be  coupled  together  in 
pairs.  By  decomposing  a  quan- 
tity of  water,  and  obtaining  .its  Fif, 


170          MOLECULAR  ATTRACTIONS 

constituent  elements  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
separate  gaseous  states,  as  by  a  voltameter,  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  60,  the  oxygen  molecules,  rising 
from  one  end,  or  pole  of  the  battery  circuit,  ascend 
into  the  inverted  glass-tube  o,  and  the  hydrogen 
into  the  other  tube,  H.  The  respective  volumes  are 
indicated  by  the  unshaded  portions  of  the  tubes, 
and  may  be  severally  weighed.  In  this  way  the 
relative  weights  and  volumes  of  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  are  ascertained.  The  molecules  of 
hydrogen  occupy  double  the  space  of  the  mole- 
cules of  oxygen,  and  have  only  one-eighth  the 
weight. 

If  the  two  separated  gases  be  commingled  in 
one  tube,  and  an  electric  spark  be  passed  through 
them,  they  become  electro-magnetically  reunited, 
and  reproduce  water;  which  weighs  as  much  as 
the  two  separate  gases.  "  Tested  by  the  battery 
poles,  substances,  considered  singly,  are  neither 
positive  nor  negative." 

By  rendering  the  molecules  of  various  com- 
pound substances  freely  movable  in  a  liquid  state, 
and  placing  therein  the  ends  of  a  conducting-wire 
connected  with  a  voltaic  battery,  it  is  found  that 
one  kind  of  molecules  goes  to  a  particular  end,  or 
pole,  of  the  battery  circuit,  and  the  other  kind  of 
molecules  to  the  opposite  pole,  in  a  systematic 
order;  commencing  with  molecules  of  oxygen, 
which  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  in  affinity  for 
the  positive  pole,  being  electro-negative  to  all 


AND    REPULSIONS.  171 

other  kinds  of  molecules.  Molecules  of  potassium 
and  nitrogen  go  to  the  negative  pole,  being  ex- 
tremely positive. 

These  orderly  unions  and  separations  of  mole- 
cules, when  subjected  to  excitation  between  the 
two  poles  of  a  voltaic  battery,  show  their  functions 
as  natural  electrical  machines. 

By  pervading  the  spaces  intervening  between 
all  the  particles  of  bodies,  the  electric  ether  diffuses 
impulses  to  every  individual  part,  thus  moving  the 
whole.  Consequently  the  number,  or  quantity,  of 
individual  atoms  in  a  body  is  ascertained  by  the  ex- 
tent of  its  gravitating  force  toward  the  earth ;  this 
being  determined  by  the  standard  test  of  coun- 
terpoising weights.  The  difference  of  weights 
of  the  several  kinds  of  elementary  molecules  indi- 
cates the  various  quantities  of  matter  they  sever- 
ally contain. 

Each  kind  being  propelled  toward  one  of  the 
two  poles  of  a  voltaic  battery  with  a  special  degree 
of  force,  the  different  kinds  of  molecules  in  com- 
pound substances  are  thus  separated  from  each 
other,  or  decomposed  ;  as  illustrated  in  the  decom- 
position of  water  by  the  voltameter. 

The  peculiar  order  in  which  each  kind  of  mole- 
cule goes  to  a  pole  of  a  voltaic  circuit,  in  a  regu- 
lar scale  of  relationship,  shows  its  subjection  to 
systematic  molecular  laws. 

When  the  molecules  of  compound  substances 
are  attracted  to  opposite  poles  of  a  voltaic  circuit, 


172  MOLECULAR    POLARIZATIONS. 

they  are  electro-magnetically  separated.  Relying 
on  this  law,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  proceeded  to 
subject  some  dissolved  potash  in  a  saucer  between 
the  two  poles  of  a  powerful  voltaic  battery,  and 
first  revealed  the  surprising  fact  that  this  substance 
is  an  oxide,  or  rust,  of  a  shining  metal  resembling 
silver.1 

Followi-ng  out  this  mode  of  detecting  the  exist- 
ence of  different  kinds  of  molecules  in  various 
compound  substances,  several  important  metals 
were  discovered ;  now  well  known  as  calcium, 
magnesium,  aluminium,  silicium,  &c.,  —  the  names 
of  these  metals  being  borrowed  from  the  names  of 
the  compound  substances  from  which  they  were 
obtained. 

To  designate  the  family  relationships  of  certain 
kinds  of  groupings  of  atoms  into  metallic  mole- 
cules, 

A  CLASSIFICATION  AND  DESCRIPTIVE  NOMENCLATURE 
IS    INTRODUCED. 

To  distinguish  the  newly  discovered  metals 
from  the  early  known  metals,  a  simple  nomen- 
clature is  used,  by  giving  to  them  the  terminal 
ium,  —  as  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  alu- 
minium, &c.  The  only  non-metallic  substance 
having  the  terminal  ium  is  selenium. 

1  The  simple  apparatus  originally  employed  in  making  this  memor- 
able discovery,  was  courteously  exhibited  to  the  writer  by  his  illustrious 
successor)  Professor  Faraday,  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  London,  in 
1852,  during  an  interesting  visit  to  that  temple,  hallowed  by  many  grand 
discoveries  in  Physical  Science. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    MOLECULES.  173 

The  older  known  metals  are  classified  in  chem- 
ical vocabularies  by  their  original  Latin  names, 
all  having  a  terminal  in  um,  —  as  ferrum,  iron ; 
argentum,  silver ;  aurum,  gold  ;  &c. 

To  the  elementary  molecules  of  a  doubtful  kind 
is  given  the  terminal  ine,  —  as  chlorine,  bromine, 
iodine,  fluorine,  &c. 

To  designate  the  unions  of  molecules  in  differ- 
ent relative  proportions,  Latin  terms  and  Greek 
numerals  are  used  ;  as  protoxide,  deutoxide,  or 
binoxide,  &c. :  the  highest  combining  portion  of 
one  kind  of  molecule  with  another  is  designated 
by  the  prefix  per ;  as  the  /^r-oxide  of  iron,  per- 
oxide  of  hydrogen,  &C.1 

In  the  formation  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
entirely  covers  the  surface  of  the  planet,  and  of 
the  waters  beneath  it,  that  cover  nearly  four-fifths 
of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  the  four  most  freely 
movable  and  readily  excitable  kinds  of  molecules 
are  employed,  on  account  of  their  superior  effi- 
ciency. 

1  The  latter  compound  is  water,  united  with  an  extra  proportion  of 
oxygen  ;  similar  to  the  surcharge  of  soda  water  with  carbonic-acid  gas. 
A  surcharge  of  water  with  molecules  of  oxygen  is  produced  by  bringing 
steam  into  contact  with  particles  of  air  in  "surface  condensers."  This 
excess  of  oxygen  being  set  free  by  heat  in  boilers  on  ocean  steamers, 
where  "  surface  condensers  "  are  used  to  obtain  fresh  distilled  water  for 
supplying  the  boilers,  it  is  found  that  the  free  oxygen  rapidly  corrodes 
the  iron  plates.  This  difficulty,  which  countervails  the  theoretical  ad- 
vantage of  the  use  of  fresh  water  in  marine  boilers,  might  probably  be 
obviated  by  passing  the  condensed  water  through  a  tube  containing 
waste  chips  of  iron  turnings,  with  which  oxygen  combines  with  almost 
explosive  rapidity.  This  may  be  tested  by  dropping  iron  filings  into 
water,  containing  a  surcharge  of  oxygen,  in  the  state  of  "  peroxide  of 
hydrogen." 


174  ANCIENT    CLASSIFICATION. 

The  ancient  philosophers  classified  the  material 
world  into  four  elementary  divisions,  —  fire,  air, 
earth,  and  water.  They  taught  "  the  existence  of 
a  universally  diffused  ethereal  medium,  pervading 
all  things,  and  manifest  3&fire  when  put  in  motion." 
This  ethereal  medium  they  placed  at  the  head  of 
elementary  substances,  as  occupying  all  space  not 
occupied  by  other  matter,  and  as  being  in  contin- 
ual motion. 

These  unceasing  motions  we  can  trace,  through 
the  momentum  of  the  vast  solar  systems,  to  the 
power  of  their  "  Unknown  God." 


MOLECULES,    ELECTRIC    MACHINES.  175 


CHAPTER   XX. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  MOLECULES  OF  OXYGEN,  CARBON,  HYDRO- 
GEN, AND  NITROGEN,  AS  ELECTRICAL  MACHINES. 

HPHE  molecules  of  oxygen  take  precedence  of  all 
others,  both  in  comparative  quantity  and  facil- 
ity of  motion  by  excitation.  They  constitute  nearly 
half  of  the  matter  of  our  planet,  including  eight- 
ninths  of  the  weight  of  waters,  —  one-fourth  of  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  —  and  a  large  part  of  the 
rocks,  sands,  and  clays.  The  molecules  of  oxygen 
are  kept  ever  moving  in  the  air  and  waters,  from 
region  to  region  over  the  earth,  forming  unions 
with  other  kinds  of  molecules,  and  dissevering 
them ;  according  to  their  changing  states  of  exci- 
tation, as  by  sunshine  and  shade,  heat  and  cold. 

Oxygen  gas  is  readily  obtained  by  disuniting  it 
from  other  kinds  of  molecules;  as  by  the  decom- 
position of  water  and  of  various  metallic  oxides. 
For  experimental  purposes  it  is  commonly  pro- 
cured by  heating  chloride  of  potash  in  a  retort. 
The  influence  of  molecules  of  oxygen  in  produc- 
ing acids,  obtained  for  them  their  characteristic 
name ;  from  the  two  Greek  words,  oxus,  acid,  and 


176  PECULIAR    FUNCTIONS    OF 

GENNAO,  I  produce.  These  molecules  are  distin- 
guished for  producing  light  and  heat,  by  uniting 
with  most  other  kinds  of  elementary  molecules,  as 
iron,  gold,  zinc,  &c. ;  but  more  especially  with  mol- 
ecules of  carbon.  Their  rapid  electro-magnetic 
union  with  substances  used  as  fuel  is  denoted 
combustion ;  a  slower  union  of  oxygen  with  other 
substances  in  voltaic  cells,  or  by  fermentation  and 
putrefaction,  is  called  chemical  decomposition. 

The  molecules  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  unite 
with  intense  activity  in  the  process  of  combustion, 
and  an  equally  intense  excitation  is  requisite  to 
separate  them, —  as  is  shown  by  a  voltameter  in 
the  decomposition  of  water. 

To  these  very  important  functions  of  molecules 
of  oxygen  we  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  re- 
cur, in  sketching  some  of  the  functions  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  in  their  various  connec- 
tions with  oxygen,  in  organic  formations  of  plants 
and  animals. 

MOLECULES    OF    CARBON. 

Next  in  importance  to  molecules  of  oxygen  are 
molecules  of  carbon.  If  the  former  be  deemed 
the  Jupiter  of  elementary  substances,  carbon  may 
be  deemed  the  Juno. 

The  molecules  of  carbon  in  a  diamond,  by  their 

strong    electro-magnetic     union,    overpower    the 

electro-magnetic  unions  of  all  other  kinds  of  mol- 

,ecules,  which  they  sever  by  their  cutting  points. 


MOLECULES    OF    CARBON.  177 

The  addition  of  only  one  molecule  of  carbon  to 
a  hundred  molecules  of  iron,  carries  with  it  a 
peculiar  hardness  and  cutting  property  by  con- 
verting the  iron  into  steel,  and  doubles  the  value 
of  the  iron,  to  which  it  imparts  permanent  mag- 
netic powers.  The  addition  of  about  fifty  per  cent 
of  molecules  of  carbon  to  the  elements  compos- 
ing water  (hydrogen  and  oxygen),  characterizes 
the  substance  of  saps,  fruits,  and  grains  serving  as 
food,  to  be  reorganized  into  the  bodies  of  living 
animals.  The  very  same  molecules  of  carbon, 
excited  by  sunshine  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  carry 
with  them  their  tenacious  properties  in  the  for- 
mation of  fibres  of  hemp,  cotton,  flax,  jute,  &c. 
Other  kinds  of  merchandise,  especially  valued  for 
peculiar  characteristics,  are  composed  of  carbon  in 
variously  proportioned  combination  with  the  three 
other  kinds  of  molecules,  —  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen.  These  compounds  develop  the  several 
peculiar  properties  of  wood,  fruits,  grains,  grasses, 
tobacco,  opium,  drugs  and  medicines,  food  and 
fuel. 

Carbon  united  with  oxygen,  as  carbonic-acid 
gas,  combines  with  molecules  of  the  metal  calcium 
in  the  formation  of  lime-rocks  and  marbles,  of  the 
bony  skeletons  of  animals,  and  even  of  the  trans- 
lucent and  iridescent  pearls.  One  half  the  weight 
of  dried  flesh  and  blood  consists  of  molecules  of 
pure  carbon  or  .charcoal ;  a*s  also  one  quarter  of 
the  weight  of  all  dried  wood.  This  is  shown  in 


178         MOLECULES  OF  HYDROGEN. 

the  process  of  driving  off  the  other  three  kinds  of 
molecules  by  heat. 

The  extent  to  which  this  process  of  carboniza- 
tion has  been  carried  on  during  the  geological 
heating  of  our  planet  is  manifest  in  the  vast  beds 
of  mineral  coal,  organized  by  antediluvian  sunshine 
on  the  leaves  of  plants.  Indeed,  molecules  of  car- 
bon, oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  combined 
by  the  solar  excitation  transmitted  to  the  outspread 
leaves  of  plants,  constitute  the  substances  most  es- 
sential for  sustaining  life,  and  those  whose  posses- 
sion is  prized  as  individual  and  national  wealth. 

MOLECULES    OF    HYDROGEN. 

Molecules  of  pure  hydrogen,  in  the  form  of  gas, 
rarely  exist;  being  generally  found  in  a  state  of 
union  with  oxygen  as  water,  and  with  other  kinds 
of  molecules. 

It  is  used  in  balloons  on  account  of  its  great 
buoyancy.  A  triple  alliance  of  molecules  of 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon  imparts  a  wonder- 
ful diversity  of  properties  to  numerous  organic 
substances,  as  wood,  vegetable  oil,  animal  flesh 
and  fat,  &c. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  changes  in  the 
properties  of  hydrogen  molecules  is  their  conver- 
sion into  acids,  when  united  with  oxygen  ;  and 
into  alkaloids,  when  combined  with  nitrogen,  —  as 
in  the  formation  of  ammonia. 

Equal  measures  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine  gases, 


MOLECULES    OF    NITROGEN.  179 

when  commingled,  form  such  an  unstable  mixture 
that  a  gleam  of  sunshine  upon  them  will  cause  an 
explosion,  —  like  that  produced  by  the  union  of 
molecules  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  by  an  electric 
spark. 

Numerous  changes  of  characteristic  properties 
of  organic  compounds  are  produced  by  varying 
the  proportionate  quantities  of  the  molecules  of 
hydrogen  and  carbon. 

MOLECULES    OF    NITROGEN. 

The  molecules  of  nitrogen  are  manifestly  em- 
ployed for  partially  neutralizing  and  modifying  the 
transmission  of  electro-mechanical  action  and  re- 
action between  other  kinds  of  molecules.  Were 
not  the  atmosphere  diluted  with  three-quarter 
parts  of  molecules  of  nitrogen,  the  intensity  of  the 
electro-magnetic  attraction  of  the  pure  molecules 
of  oxygen  for  other  kinds  of  molecules  would  pro- 
duce a  conflagration  of  surrounding  bodies.  Even 
the  grate  bars  of  a  furnace  would  burn  with  a 
more  brilliant  light  and  intense  heat  than  any 
fuel  ordinarily  consumed  therein. 

If  the  proportion  of  the  molecules  of  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere — composed,  by 
weight,  of  nitrogen  seventy-seven  and  oxygen 
twenty-three  —  be  reversed  to  oxygen  seventy- 
seven  and  nitrogen  twenty-three,  nitric  acid 
would  be  developed ;  which  is  the  most  powerful 
re -agent  employed  by  chemists  for  decomposing 
compound  substances. 


l8o  COMBINATION    OF   MOLECULES. 

Organic  substances  composed  of  carbon,  united 
with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportions 
constituting  water  (such  as  cotton,  oil,  and  animal 
fat),  if  impregnated  with  nitrogen,  produce  ex- 
plosive substances,  —  gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine, 
dynamite,  &c. 

A  remarkably  sudden  development  of  reaction 
ensues,  when  the  molecules  of  nitrogen  predominate 
in  a  compound  with  carbon, — as  in  prussic,  or 
hydrocyanic  acid,  —  in  the  proportions  of 

NITROGEN     14  =  51.85  by  weight  1 

CARBON        12  =  44 .55          „          1  PRUSSIC  ACID. 

HYDROGEN     i  =    3.70         „         J 

When  this  unstable  compound  of  prussic  acid 
is  taken  into  the  stomach,  the  carbon,  instead  of 
being  slowly  dissolved  into  chyle  by  the  usual 
process  of  digestipn,  unites  with  the  oxygen  of 
liquids  in  the  stomach  with  nitrogenous  rapidity ; 
and,  probably  reversing  the  direction  of  the  electric 
currents  through  the  sensorial  nerves,  produces 
an  instantaneous  cessation  of  nervous  sensibility, 
and  the  suspension  of  the  vital  powers.1 

The  presence  of  the  molecules  of  nitrogen  in 
the  compound  substance  ammonia  (NH3)  hastens 

1  If  the  nitrogenous  compound  of  prussic  acid  be  taken  into  the 
stomach  in  a  considerable  quantity,  a  nervous  paralysis  ensues,  until  the 
blood  coagulates  and  death  take$  place ;  but  if  the  quantity  be  small, 
only  a  temporary  nervous  insensibility  follows,  — as  was  verified  by  the 
writer  in  an  attempt  to  make  way  with  an  obnoxious  cat.  The  animal 
apparently  became  dead  in  an  instant,  and  was  decently  buried  in  a  dis- 
tant ash-pit.  After  a  time,  he  reappeared  on  the  scene  like  Banquo's 
ghost,  and,  looking  up  reproachfully,  began  to  shake  off  his  shroud  of 
ashes  ! 


DIFFERENCE    OF    SAME    GROUPINGS.  l8l 

greatly    the    decomposition    of   all    organic    sub- 
stances  used  for  fertilizers  in  agriculture. 

« 

ISOMERIC    BODIES. 

Isomeric  bodies  do  not  always  manifest  the 
same  peculiar  properties.  The  oil  of  turpentine, 
of 'lemon,  and  of  roses,  being  analyzed,  appear  to 
be  composed  of  the  same  identical  proportions ; 
and  yet  they  transmit  different  reactions  through 
the  sensorial  nerves. 

Chemists  have  tried  to  convert  resin  into  butter 
on  isomeric  principles  ;  "  but  the  scent  of  the  resin 
will  hang  round  it  still."  Similar  attempts  con- 
tinue to  be  made  to  convert  oils  and  fat  into 
butter. 

The  reflection  of  colors  from  the  surface  of  iso- 
meric bodies  appears  to  be  remarkably  uniform  ; 
as  discovered  by  Graeby  and  Silberman,  in- substi- 
tuting the  colors  called  "Aniline,"  derived  from 
coal-tar,  for  the  coloring  matter  in  madder,  now 
generally  used  for  dyeing  cloths  red,  purple,  and 
violet. 

Not  only  do  different  kinds  of  molecules  reflect 
vibrations  of  light  with  different  intensity,  corre- 
sponding to  a  chromatic  scale  of  colors,  but  also 
peculiar  dark  lines,  or  markings  (discovered  by 
Frauenh offer),  on  which  is  now  based  what  is 
called  "  Spectrum  Analysis."  This  is  the  most 
delicate  known  test  for  determining  the  kinds  of 
molecules  contained  in  compound  substances,  and 


1 82  ELECTRO-POLARIZATION    OF    ATOMS, 

the  only  test  of  the  composition  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  The  excitation  of  the  flame  of  a  blow- 
pipe, directed  upon  specimens  of  metals  and  ores 
laid  on  a  piece  of  charcoal,  affords  a  beautiful  ex- 
hibition of  colors  developed  by  different  kinds  of 
molecules.  The  presence  of  molecules  of  stron- 
tium, copper,  soda,  &c.,  modify  the  vibrations  of 
light  and  colors  transmitted  to  the  eye. 

FORMATION    OF    MOLECULES    INTO    CRYSTALS. 

The  orderly  and  systematic  movements  of  mol- 
ecules during  the  process  of  crystallization  are 
wonderfully  displayed  by  the  magnifying  powers 
of  optical  instruments.  Their  shadow.y  outlines 
appear  moving  over  a  white  sheet  of  canvas  in 
files,  like  drilled  soldiers  passing  in  review.  The 
gradual  evaporation  of  a  liquid  solution  of  salts, 
spread  on  a  transparent  sheet  of  glass,  brings  the 
molecules  toward  each  other  within  the  range  of 
their  reciprocal  electro-magnetic  forces  ;  when  they 
successively  start  forward  to  their  proper  places 
to  form  beautiful  symmetrical  crystals,  without  any 
of  the  jostlings  or  mistakes  observable  in  the  ranks 
at  a  militia  m.uster.  So  orderly  are  the  movements, 
that  the  molecules  seem  to  be  endowed  with  self- 
motive  and  self-directive  powers.  Expressions  of 
surprise  and  admiration  are  often  heard  from 
spectators,  who  for  the  first  time  behold  the  won- 
derful automatic  movements  of  molecules  in  the 
process  of  crystallization. 


CRYSTALLIZATION. 


18 


The  symmetrical  electro-magnetic  unions  of 
particles  of  water  are  familiarly  exhibited  in  the 
feathery  crystals  of  fall- 
ing snow  (Fig.  61).  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the 
arrangements  of  its 
molecules  are  all  hexag- 
onal. Different  kinds 
of  molecules  have  other 
different  and  peculiar 
arrangements,  some  of 
which  are  delineated  in 
Fig.  62,  showing  their 
characteristic  forms  of 
crystalline  polarization. 
The  shapes  of  crystals 
are  deemed  by  chemists  Fig- 6l> 

to  be  indications  of  the  peculiar  kinds  of  molecules 
distinguishing  them. 


Fig.  62. 

The  hexagonal  lines  of  crystals  of  water  are 
familiarly  seen  in  the  frost-work  on  window-panes, 
produced  by  the  axial  rotation  that  predominates 
during  the  withdrawal  of  solar  reaction  in  wintry 
nights,  as  previously  described.  So  mathematically 


184        CAUSE  OF  ANGULAR  SHAPES. 

exact  are  the  polygonal  shapes  of  crystals,  that  they 
appear  to  be  works  of  art,  rather  than  natural  for- 
mations. Feeble  as  may  appear  the  movements 
of  molecules  visible  under  the  microscope,  yet  the 
power  that  moves  them  is  more  forcible  than  that 
of  gunpowder ;  for  the  strongest  cannon  are  burst 
by  the  expansion  of  particles  of  water,  on  reducing 
the  temperature  a  few  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point.  Thus  the  terrestrial  currents  that  produce 
a  change  of  particles  of  water  into  ice-crystals 
exceed  the  force  developed  by  the  vibrations 
excited  by  1000°  of  heat. 

The  angular  and  symmetrical  forms  of  crystals 
appear  to  result  from  the  peculiar  shape  of  each 
kind  of  molecule,  these  molecules  fitting  to  each 
other  electro-magnetically  according  to  the  angles 
of  their  various  sides.  A  cube  is  formed  by 
molecules  arranged  with  rectangular  sides,  as  is 
manifest  from  the  cleavages.  The  various  angles 
at  which  they  unite  may  be  indicated  by  sprink- 
ling on  a  loadstone  small  nails  with  angular  heads. 
The  sloping  sides  of  the  heads  are  drawn  to  the 
sides  of  the  loadstone,  giving  corresponding  direc- 
tion to  the  nails,  which  bristle  out  in  various  di- 
rections, as  represented  in  Fig.  63. l 

The  polarization  of  watery  sap  in  the  vesicles  of 


1  A  speculative  philosopher,  the  Rev.  J.  G.  McVicar,  LL.D.,  has 
fancifully  depicted  various  forms  of  molecules,  adapting  them  to  fit 
together  in  different  combinations,  —  some  of  these  curious  forms  resem- 
bling the  hour-glass-shaped  waists  of  the  belles  of  ancient  times. 


SHAPES    OF    MOLECULES. 


185 


the  leaves  of   plants  crystallizes   it   into  ice,  and 

bursts  them  like  bottles 
containing  freezing 
water;  as  occurs  in 
autumn  through  the 
waning  vibrations  of 
sunshihe,  when  the  ter- 
restrial currents  pre- 
dominate. The  leaves 
of  evergreens  escape 
destruction  and  retain 
perennial  verdure  be- 
cause the  vesicles  are 
rilled  with  unpolarized 
oils. 

In  the  preceding  figure,  ordinary  flat-headed 
iron  tack  nails  are  represented.  If  the  heads  are 
made  of  a  sloping  shape,  they  are  held  to  the  sur- 
face in  diagonal  directions,  as  if  fitted  together 
by  mitre-joints  to  form  hexagonal,  octagonal,  and 
other  symmetrical  shapes. 


63. 


1 86 


PECULIAR    MOLECULAR    GROUPINGS. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 


PECULIAR  QUALITIES  OF  COMPOUND  SUBSTANCES  DE- 
VELOPED BY  VARIOUS  RELATIVE  PROPORTIONS  OF 
THE  SAME  KINDS  OF  MOLECULES. 

/T*HE  following  table  exhibits  the  remarkable 
difference  in  the  characteristic  properties  of 
well  known  compound  substances,  developed  by 
increasing  the  number  of  molecules  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  by  pairs,  from  four  to  thirty-four,  with  a 
constant  quantity  of  four  molecules  of  oxygen. 

VINEGAR,  BUTTER,  VEGETABLE  OILS,  AND  FAT  PRODUCED 
BY  VARYING  THE  RELATIVE  PROPORTIONS  OF  CARBON, 
HYDROGEN,  AND  OXYGEN. 


No. 

Union 
Carb. 

of  Mole 
Hydro. 

cules  of 
Oxy. 

Compound  Substances  Produced. 

j 

4 

4 

4 

Vinegar   .     . 

or     Acetic      .     . 

Acid. 

2 

6 

6 

4 

Burnt  Sugar 

Meta-cetonic 

3 

8 

8 

4 

Butter     .     . 

Butyric    .     . 

4 

10 

10 

4 

Vegetable  Oil 

Valerianic     . 

12 

12 

4 

J                    J) 

Caproic   .     . 

6 

»4 

14 

4 

Oenan-thylic 

7 
8 

16 
18 

16 

18 

4 
4 

'          " 

Caprytic  .     . 
Pelargonic    . 

9 

20 

20 

4 

,          ,, 

Capric     .     . 

10 

_ 

— 

— 

ii 

24 

24 

4 

Bayberry  Tallo 

w 

Laurie     .     . 

12 

26 

26 

4 

Cocoanut  Oil 

Coconic   . 

13 

2"8 

28 

4 

Nutmeg  Oil  . 

Myristic  . 

15 

32 

32 

4 

Palm  Oil      . 

Palmitic  . 

16 

34 

34 

4 

Animal  Fat. 

Margaric 

The  presence  of  four  molecules  of  oxygen  in 
each  of  these  groupings  appears  to  determine  their 
acid  property. 


VARIED    MOLECULAR   GROUPINGS. 


I87 


The  grouping  of  four  molecules  of  carbon  with 
six  of  hydrogen  and  only  one  of  oxygen  is  essential 
to  the  development  of  the  exciting  powers  of  alco- 
hol, which  takes  precedence  of  all  other  substances 
for  general  use  in  stimulating  the  vital  powers ; 
even  to  the  destruction  of  body  and  mind.  By 
increasing  the  carbon  from  four  to  ten,  with 
eight  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  nitrogen,  another 
stimulating  vegetable  substance  —  nicotine  —  is 
produced. 

By  combination  in  other  various  proportions  of 
the  four  kinds  of  molecules,  —  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  —  the  peculiar  powers  of 
numerous  drugs  and  medicines  are  developed,  as 
shown  comparatively  in  the  following  table :  — 

PROPERTIES  OF  DRUGS  AND  MEDICINES  DEVELOPED  BY 
VARIED  MOLECULAR  GROUPINGS. 


Mercantile  Names. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Chem.  Names. 

OPIUM 

QUININE   .  .  . 

22 

12 

2 

QUININE. 

TOBACCO   .  .  . 

IO 

8 

o 

I 

NICOTINE. 

ALCOHOL  .  .  . 

4 

6 

I 

0 

ALCOHOL. 

This  wonderful  diversity  of  characteristic  prop- 
erties is  brought  about  by  varied  .combinations  of 
only  a  few  of  the  sixty-six  different  kinds  of  ele- 
mentary molecules.  All  the  various  qualities  of  food 
for  exciting  the  vital  powers,  —  of  deadly  poisons 
terminating  them,  —  of  salutary  drugs  and  healing 
medicines,  are  developed  through  the  instrumen- 


i88 


MOLECULAR    ORGANISMS 


tality  of  groupings  of  molecules,  as  machines  for 
modifying  the  excitation  and  diffusion  of  elec- 
tro-mechanical action  induced  by  the  planetary 
forces. 

COMPARATIVE  QUANTITIES  OF  ELEMENTARY  MOLE- 
CULES GROUPED  IN  THE  ORGANISMS  OF  PLANTS  AND 
ANIMALS. 


Constituents  of  Plants 
and  Animals. 

ALBUMEN. 

FlBRINE. 

CASEINE. 

Plants. 
Wheat. 

Animals. 
Blood, 
Eggs. 

Plants. 
Sap. 

Animals. 
Muscles. 

Plants. 

Various 
Seeds. 

Animals. 

Milk  and 
Cheese. 

CARBON  

54-71 

15.02 

7-13 
23.14 

54.84 

I5-83 
7.09 

22.24 

54.60 
15.81 
7-30 

22.29 

54o6 
15.72 
6.90 

22.82 

54.13 
15.67 

7.15 
23-03 

54.96 
15.80 
7.09 

22.24 

NITROGEN  

OXYGEN.  .  .  .  22.i2\ 
SULPHUR  .  .  .      .37! 
PHOSPHORUS,      .35! 
LIME  307 

IOO. 

IOO. 

IOO. 

IOO. 

IOO. 

IOO. 

The  vegetable  albumen  of  wheat,  constituting 
one  of  the  principal  kinds  of  food  of  man,  and  the 
animal  albumen  of  meat,  muscle,  and  eggs,  are 
nearly  identical. 

Albumen  —  composed  of  molecules  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  with  a  little  lime, 
sulphur,  and  phosphorus — is  first  organized  by  sun- 
shine on  the  leaves  of  plants  into  the  compound 
substances  constituting  food  for  animals ;  which 
is  reorganized  into  living  mechanisms.  As 
affirmed  by  Liebig,  "  Albumen  is  the  true  start- 
ing point  of  all  animal  tissues."  From  albumen 
in  an  egg,  all  the  feathers,  bones,  flesh,  and  horny 
bill  of  a  complete  bird  are  developed.  A  little 


FORMING    ALBUMEN,    FIBRINE,    CASEINE.         189 

iron  is  present  in  the  blood,  serving  to  impart  to 
it  a  red  color,  and  a  little  silicon  and  potash  are 
found  in  the  solid  skeleton  parts  of  plants  and 
animals.  These  kinds  of  molecules  are  scientifi- 
cally combined  together  to  form  the  mechanisms 
of  living  plants,  and  of  the  animals  in  which  finite 
intelligences  on  earth  for  a  brief  time  have  local 
habitations.  The  immediate  seat  of  human  intel- 
ligence, the  brain,  according  to  Fremy,  is  composed 
of  seven  parts  of  albumen  and  five  of  fatty  matter, 
with  a  little  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  and  the 
remaining  seventy-five  parts  of  water.  In  this 
arrangement  of  molecules  in  cells,  tubes,  and  con- 
ducting nerves,  constituting  the  brain,  human 
intelligence  is  enthroned,  and  by  it  receives  and 
transmits  communications  from  and  to  the  objects 
of  the  external  world. 

As  each  individual  molecule  serves  as  an  elec- 
trical machine  for  developing  a  peculiar  reaction, 
so  each  kind  of  groupings  of  molecules  similarly 
serves  to  develop  a  peculiar  electro-mechanical 
reaction,  which  constitutes  the  characteristic  prop- 
erties of  various  compound  substances. 

The  annexed  table  exhibits  the  proportionate 
quantities  of  each  of  the  four  most  excitable  kinds 
of  elementary  molecules,  which  are  utilized  as 
food  for  developing  plants  and  animals,  animal 
warmth  and  motive-power ;  and  also  as  fuel  for 
developing  heat,  light,  and  the  motive-power  of 
steam. 


I9O        MOLECULES    FORMING    FOOD    AND    FUEL. 


RELATIVE  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  FOUR  KINDS  OF  FLUID 
ATMOSPHERIC  MOLECULES,  WHICH  ENTER  INTO  THE 
ORGANIC  FORMATIONS  OF  FOOD  AND  FUEL. 


TABLE  OF  VEGETABLE  ORGANIC   FORMATIONS  UTILIZED  AS  FOOD 

AND  FUEL. 

Food  and  Fuel. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Ashes, 
&c. 

Total. 

WHEAT    

46.10 

<;.8o 

47.04 

2.O7 

2.04 

TOO 

OATS  

l?0.  7O 

•> 
o.oo 

77.  "?o 

•}  QO 

4- 

IOO 

DRY  HAY   

40. 

«;.6T 

76.71 

1.84 

6.82 

IOO 

DRIED  POTATOES  . 

44. 

5.80 

44.7° 

1.50 

4- 

IOO 

DRIED  TURNIPS    . 

43- 

5.40 

42.30 

1.70 

7.60 

IOO 

OLIVE  OIL     .      . 

77  21 

XL  ID 

Q  47 

BUTTER                  . 

40. 

2O 

TURPENTINE   .  .  . 

8-8.46 

11.54 

_ 

•_ 

IOO 

WHALE  OIL  .... 

79- 

11.54 

9- 

- 

- 

IOO 

HOG'S  FAT    .... 

79- 

11.54 

10. 

- 

- 

IOO 

HUMAN  FAT    .  .  . 

79- 

11.54 

10. 

- 

- 

IOO 

BLOOD,  FLESH    .  . 

73- 

7- 

20. 

_ 

3- 

IOO 

WOOD,  OR  LIGNINE 
BITUMINOUS  COAL 

50. 
70. 

L, 

42. 
12.50 

6.25 

5. 

IOO 
IOO 

ANTHRACITE  COAL 

89. 

3- 

4- 

6.25 

3- 

IOO 

The  ashes  are  constituted  of  potash,  silex,  lime, 
and  sulphur. 


PLANTS    AS    ELECTRIC    MACHINES.  19 1 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

PLANTS    AS    ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 

TV/TATTER  has  been  classified  into  two  grand 
divisions,  —  ORGANIC  and  INORGANIC. 

By  microscopic  examination  of  the  structure  of 
plants,  and  also  of  animals,  they  are  found  to  be 
composed  of  congeries  of  tubes,  resembling  the 
multitude  of  pipes  in  an  organ  :  hence  the  term, 
organic,  originated  in  contradistinction  to  the 
grouping  of  molecules  into  crystals  by  electro- 
magnetism,  denoted  inorganic  formations. 

The  union  of  molecules  by  electro-magnetism 
in  liquid,  and  aeriform,  and  various  other  states, 
without  any  crystalline  structure,  is  designated 
AMORPHOUS. 

The  total  number  and  quantity  of  organic  re- 
mains on  the  surface  and  in  the  strata  of  the  earth 
are  inconceivably  great.  Nearly  half  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  covered  with  animal  and  vegetable  fos- 
siliferous  deposits  :  many  of  the  latter  are  several 
thousand  feet  in  thickness.  They  abound  on 
mountains  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  sixteen 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  —  in  strata 
on  the  Himalayas  and  the  Andes, — and  are  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  at  a  greater  number  of 


PLANTS  AS  CURRENT  CHANGERS. 

feet  below  its  level.  There  are  far  more  beings 
entombed  within  the  earth  than  are  alive  upon  its 
surface. 

The  name  of  "  Plant "  is  derived  from  PLANTA, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  —  as  if  plants  stood  on  one  foot 
while  holding  out  their  leaves  and  blossoms ;  de- 
noted petals,  from  the  Greek  PETALOS,  outspread. 

The  leaves  of  plants  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth,  while  excited  by  sunshine,  like  the 
excited  plates  or  leaves  of  a  voltaic  battery,  are 
specially  adapted  to  decompose  water  and  car- 
bonic-acid gas ;  so  that  plants  are  really  electric 
machines. 

As  the  ebbing  and  flowing  tidal  waves  of  the 
electric  ether,  excited  by  artificial  revolving  mag- 
nets, are  converted  by  "  current-changers "  into 
currents  moving  in  a  uniform  direction,  so  there 
are  over  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  different  kinds  of 
natural  mechanisms  of  plants  subjected  to  solar 
excitation,  which  convert  the  vibrations  of  light 
and  heat  into  thermo-electric  currents  through 
the  sap  pores,  in  a  circuit  between  the  leaves  and 
the  roots  buried  in  the  cool  moist  earth. 

As  the  plates  or  leaves  of  zinc,  excited  by  acids 
in  the  cells  of  voltaic  batteries,  remain  cool  while 
converting  vibrations  into  electric  currents,  so, 
during  a  like  natural  process,  the  leaves  of  all 
plants  remain  cool,  while  decomposing  the  car- 
bonic-acid gas  and  water  brought  to  them  by 
zephyrs  and  rain-drops  as  their  appropriate  food. 


ORGANIC    FORMATIONS    UNSTABLE.  193 

Plants  being  composed  of  electro-magnetic  mol- 
ecules are  consequently,  in  their  groupings  and 
masses,  electro-magnetic.  The  organs  of  living 
plants  are  galvanic  batteries,  transmitting  and 
modifying  solar  vibrations.  The  excitation  of  elec- 
tricity is  going  on  in  every  movement  of  organic 
as  well  as  inorganic  matter,  and  a  disturbance  of 
electric  equilibrium  is  continually  taking  place  in 
each  molecule  of  the  living  plant  and  animal. 

By  the  law  of  compensating  movements  a  speedy 
or  gradual  restoration  of  the  disturbed  equilibrium 
is  effected,  by  what  is  denoted 

CHEMICAL    DECOMPOSITION. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  plants  shows  that  their 
organic  structures  are  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
mentary molecules  as  the  atmosphere  and  water, — 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen. 

The  establishment  of  life-power  in  connection 
with  molecules  grouped  into  the  germs  of  organic 
formations  of  plants,  may  be  ascribed  to  the  ab- 
solute will  of  the  great  First  Cause,  as  it  is  beyond 
the  scope  of  science.  "  And  God  said,  Let  the 
earth  bring  forth  grass,  the  herb  yielding  seed,  and 
the  fruit-tree  yielding  fruit  after  his  kind,  whose 
seed  is  in  itself  upon  the  earth ;  and  it  was  so." 

Observation  teaches  us  that  every  static  and 
dynamic  condition  of  the  groupings  of  such  mole- 
cules, both  in  plants  and  animals,  is  governed  by 
mechanical  laws. 

13 


PLANTS  ELECTRO-PLATED  GERMS. 

The  two  great  processes  in  the  growth  of  plants 
are  the  decomposition  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  and 
the  electro-plating  of  molecules  of  carbon  upon 
model  germs  of  new  plants. 

In  electro-plating,  the  magneto-electric  machine 
is  formed  of  magnets  revolving  around  a  central 
axis,  with  a  current-changer  annexed.  Scientific 
knowledge  is  shown  in  the  construction  of  the 
machine,  and  artistic  skill  is  required  for  the  pro- 
duction of  original  and  beautiful  models. 

So,  in  the  natural  process  of  electro-plating,  the 
motive-power  is  the  magneto-electric  machine  of 
the  solar  system ;  the  current-changers  are  the 
leaves  of  plants ;  and  the  original  models  to  be 
electro-plated  are  the  embryo  germs  in  seed- 
vessels. 

The  decomposition  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  and 
the  transfer  of  the  carbon,  molecule  by  molecule, 
through  the  liquid  solution  of  sap,  into  the  organic 
formations  of  plants,  renders  our  planet  (among 
other  marvels)  a  great  electro-plating  machine, 
continually  employed  in  developing  the  embryo 
germs  of  plants  into  strength  and  growth. 

Omniscience  and  omnipotence  are  manifested 
in  the  original  conception  and  construction,  and 
in  the  graceful  and  elaborate  forms  of  the  model 
germs. 

Plants  are  found  which  have  received  the  de- 
scriptive names  of  the  bee  and  fly  plants.  Others 
resemble  hoods,  helmets,  arrow-heads,  slippers, 


VARIETY    OF    ORIGINAL    GERMS.  195 

horsetails,  pitchers  with  nicely  fitted  lids  au- 
tomatically opening  in  wet  and  closing  in  dry 
weather.  On  the  parched  plains  of  Ceylon, 
birds  sip  water  therefrom. 

The  Passion-flower  is  so  called  from  a  resem- 
blance to  the  sacred  emblems  of  the  crucifixion. 
Many  of  these  flowers  resemble  works  of  art.  A 
plant  in  the  regions  of  Panama  has  the  form  of 
a  dove  with  outspread  wings  and  drooping  head, 
as  represented  by  the  old  masters  in  the  baptism  of 
our  Saviour.  The  cyenoche  plant  of  Surinam  has 
the  graceful  outline  of  a  swan,  with  its  curving 
neck  and  swelling  breast.  One  of  these  flower- 
birds  shows  a  head  with  a  white  crest  curved  back, 
as  if  to  plume  its  feathers. 

There  is  no  limit  to  these  fanciful  forms.  The 
germs  of  plants,  like  those  of  animals,  are  devel- 
oped by  sexual  organs  of  stamens  and  pistils,  and 
are  classed  together  in  families. 

They  appear  to  manifest  parental  rejoicing  on 
the  birthday  of  each  new-born  germ,  by  hanging 
out  blossoms,  like  painted  and  perfumed  banners 
pendent  from  twigs  and  stems,  and  resplendent  in 
the  sunshine. 

The  seeds  of  certain  plants  are  disseminated  by 
winds  and  ^  waters.  The  cocoanut,  a  little  argo- 
naut, provisioned  with  milk  and  water  for  a  sea 
voyage,  freighted  with  a  life  of  its  own,  with  its 
magnetic  and  diamagnetic  currents,  impelled  by 
winds  and  tides,  floats  over  the  water,  reaching  at 


196  SOCIAL    CONDITION    OF    PLANTS. 

length  some  coral  island  in  mid-ocean.  Dashed 
on  the  strand  by  the  waves,  it  is  saved  from  fracture 
by  its  hard  covering.  The  spongy  husk  absorbs 
the  rains.  The  rootlets  descend  through  two  ap- 
.ertures  in  the  shell ;  the  sprout  ascends  through 
a  third ;  and  speedily  a  young  palm  tree  spreads 
its  broad  leaf  to  the  vibrations  of  the  solar  light 
and  heat. 

If  this  incipient  palm  tree,  by  its  self-directive 
powers,  anticipates  geological  formations,  provi- 
sions its  craft  for  a  sea  voyage,  and  takes  possession 
of  an  emerging  coral  isle,  it  as  much  surpasses 
man  in  intelligence  as  in  physical  growth. 

Among  the  dense  crowds  of  growing  plants,  as 
in  the  ranks  of  social  life,  there  is  the  same  aspiring 
to  overtop  each  other,  the  same  laying  up  of  little 
stores  for  the  future  wants  of  their  offspring,  and 
the  same  appropriation  of  them  by  others,  not  their 
progeny. 

Plants  extend  their  roots  to  reach  substances 
which  are  their  appropriate  food.  The  molecules 
of  carbonic-acid  gas,  in  permeating  the  soil,  are 
attracted  by  the  negative  points  of  the  rootlets,  as 
by  the  pole  in  a  galvanic  circuit  in  electro-plating 
with  molecules  of  gold  or  silver.  By  the  continued 
deposit  of  molecules  of  carbon  on  the  ends  of  the 
rootlets  in  the  direction  of  the  advancing  current 
of  carbonic-acid  gas,  the  accretions  naturally  take 
place  in  the  direction  of  the  decomposing  body, 
from  which  the  gas  issues. 


ELECTRIC    EXCITATION    BY    PLANTS.  197 

If  a  body  absorbs  carbonic-acid  gas  and  gives 
out  oxygen,  it  belongs  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  ; 
if  it  absorbs  oxygen  and  gives  out  carbonic-acid 
gas,  it  belongs  to  the  animal  kingdom.  In  this 
way  the  difference  is  tested. 

Becquerel  says  that  electric  currents  may  be  ac- 
tually detected  between  the  parts  about  the  stems 
and  the  opposite  parts  of  various  kinds  of  fruit. 

"  Certain  vegetable  organizations,  especially  those 
of  an  orange  color,  —  such  as  the  mangold,  orange 
lily,  monkshood,  and  indian  pink,  —  emit  at  inter- 
vals of  several  minutes  two  or  three  flashes  of 
light  in  quick  succession ;  and  when  several  flow- 
ers in  the  same  place  emitted  their  light  together, 
it  could  be  seen  at  a  considerable  distance.  This 
phenomenon  was  noticed  in  July  and  August, 
when  the  sky  was  clear." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  light  is  emitted  by  many 
fungi  while  germinating,  and  in  -some  cases  to  a 
very  considerable  extent.  An  authentic  instance 
is  recorded,  in  Gardner's  "  Travels  in  Brazil,"  of  a 
fungus  which  grew  on  the  decaying  leaves  of  a 
dwarf  palm.  "  The  whole  plant  gives  out  at  night 
a  bright  phosphorescent  light  of  a  pale  greenish 
hue,  similar  to  that  emitted  by  the  larger  fire-flies. 
The  light  given  out  by  a  few  of  these  fungi  in  a 
dark  room  was  sufficient  to  read  by."  ] 

"  No  phosphorescence  is  perceived  in  the  dead 
plant."  Pouillet  also  proved  experimentally  that 

1  Carpenter's  Physiology. 


198  PLANTS    EXCITED    BY    SUNSHINE. 

the  ordinary  processes  of  vegetable  growth  are  at- 
tended with  a  disturbance  of  electric  equilibrium, 
which  is  manifested  when  the  bodies  in  which  it 
takes  place  are  effectually  insulated.  "  Several 
pots  filled  with  earth,  and  containing  different 
seeds,  were  placed  on  an  insulated  stand  in  a  room, 
the  air  of  which  was  kept  dry  by  quick-lime;  and 
the  stand  was  placed  in  connection  with  a  con- 
densing electrometer.  During  germination  no 
electric  disturbance  was  manifested ;  but  the  seeds 
had  scarcely  sprouted  when  signs  of  it  were  evi- 
dent ;  and  when  the  young  plants  were  in  a  com- 
plete state  of  growth,  they  separated  the  gold 
leaves  of  the  electrometer  half  an  inch  from 
each  other." 

It  was  calculated  by  him  that  a  vegetating  sur- 
face of  one  hundred  square  metres  in  extent  pro- 
duces in  a  day  more  electricity  than  would  be 
sufficient  to  charge  the  strongest  battery ;  and  he 
not  unreasonably  considered  that  the  growth  of 
plants  may  be  one  of  the  most  constant  and  pow- 
erful sources  of  atmospheric  electricity. 

The  disengagement  of  vapor  from  the  surface 
of  the  leaves  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  produce 
such  a  disturbance,  —  as  the  fluid  from  which  it  is 
given  off  is  always  charged  with  saline  and  other 
ingredients;  and  the  gaseous  changes  which  are 
effected  by  the  leaves  upon  the  oxygen  and  car- 
bonic acid  of  the  atmosphere,  may  be  regarded 
as  additional  sources  of  its  development. 


ELECTRIC    CURRENTS    IN    FRUITS.  199 

During  the  various  processes  of  decomposition 
and  recomposition,  which  take  place  in  the  assimi- 
lation of  the  vegetable  juices,  we  should  expect 
that  electric  equilibrium  would  be  constantly  dis- 
turbed and  restored. 

"  Of  this,  the  following  facts,  amongst  others, 
appear  to  be  sufficient  evidence.  If  a  wire  be 
placed  in  apposition  with  the  bark  of  a  growing 
plant,  and  another  be  passed  into  the  pith,  con- 
trary electrical  states  are  indicated  when  they  are 
applied  to  an  electrometer.  If  platinum  wires  be 
passed  into  the  two  extremities  of  a  fruit,  they 
also  will  be  found  to  present  opposite  conditions." 
"In  some  fruits,  as  the  apple  and  pear,  the  stalk 
is  negative,  the  eye  positive ;  while  in  such  as  the 
peach  and  apricot  a  contrary  state  exists.  If  a 
prune  be  divided  equatorially,  and  the  juice  be 
squeezed  from  its  two  halves  into  separate  vessels, 
its  portions  will  in  like  manner  indicate  opposite 
electrical  states,  although  no  difference  can  be 
perceived  in  their  chemical  qualities." ] 

1  Annales  de  Chimie,  torn.  57.     Carpenter's  Physiology,  p.  462. 


2OO  ELECTRIC    POWERS    OF   ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

ANIMALS    AS    ELECTRIC    MACHINES. 

HPHE  extraordinary  electrical  powers  possessed 
by  certain  fishes  was  noticed  in  the  earliest 
records  of  science,  by  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  other 
ancient  authors.  After  the  discovery  of  the  elec- 
trical jar  and  the  shocks  produced  thereby,  the  sim- 
ilarity of  the  sensation  was  so  striking  as  to  obtain 
for  them  the  name  of  "  electrical "  fishes. 

In  the  torpedo,  there  are  a  great  number  of 
small  membranous  cells  arranged  like  those  of  a 
honeycomb,  as  shown  in  Fig.  64. 


Fig.  64. 

These  cells  are  filled  with  a  mucous  substance, 
and  are  furnished  with  tissues  of  nerves.  No  use 
can  be  imagined  for  this  peculiar  arrangement  of 
cells,  unless  it  be  for  the  purpose  of  a  galvanic 


ELECTRIC    POWERS    OF   THE    TORPEDO.          2OI 

battery.  The  electric  circuit  is  directed  between 
the  surface  of  the  belly  and  that  of  the  back. 
It  is  said  that  "  there  are  eleven  hundred  and 
eighty-two  of  these  cells  in  a  single  organ,  all  con- 
nected by  nerves,  —  which  are  electrodes,  like 
conducting  wires.  When  the  nerves  are  cut  off, 
all  transmission  of  electricity  ceases;  otherwise 
this  transmission  continues  after  the  heart  of 
the  animal  has  been  cut  out  and  his  skin  stripped 
off." 

"  The  shocks  given  are  subject  to  the  will  of 
the  torpedo  ;  for  he  may  be  touched  many  times 
without  giving  one.  But  when  irritated,  the  vio- 
lence of  the  shock  will  be  redoubled." 

Electric  sparks  have  been  rendered  visible  by 
Matteucci,  who  applied  to  the  fish  two  metallic 
armatures,  having  arranged  two  slips  of  gold-leaf 
very  near  each  other  in  the  connecting  circuit. 
On  irritating  the  torpedo,  a  brilliant  spark  was 
seen  between  them. 

"  The  electrical  lobes  of  the  brain  of  the  torpedo 
are  larger  than  the  whole  remainder  of  that  organ  ; 
and  the  density  of  the  electrical  nerves  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  others." 

"  The  electric  force  is  developed  in  the  electric 
organ  by  a  disturbance  of  its  equilibrium,  conse- 
quent upon  nervous  agency.  Such  a  disturbance 
may  be  conceived  to  take  place  in  every  one  of 
those  minute  cells,  into  which  the  prism  is  divided 
by  transverse  partitions.  By  the  multiplication  of 


2O2  ELECTRIC    EXCITATION    CAUSES 

such  cells  in  each  prism,  a  pile  would  be  pro- 
duced, at  the  two  extremes  of  which  the  greatest 
differences  in  the  electric  conditions  would  be 
found ;  and  the  intensity  of  the  discharge  would 
thus  depend  upon  the  number  of  elements  in  the 
pile ;  while  its  quantity  would  be  proportional  to 
the  multiplication  of  the  separate  prisms. 

"  This  is  precisely  what  holds  good  in  Nature ; 
for  the  electric  discharge  of  the  gymnotus  is  far 
more  intense  than  that  of  the  torpedo,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  multiplication  of  its  cells ; 
so  that,  according  to  Professor  Faraday,  'a  single 
medium  discharge  from  this  animal  gives  a  shock 
equal  to  that  of  a  battery  of  fifteen  Leyden  jars, 
containing  3500  square  inches,  charged  to  its 
highest  degree.'  Further  evidence,  that  the  force 
which  enables  electric  fishes  to  give  sensible  man- 
ifestations of  electricity  is  the  same  as  that  which 
excites  contraction  when  transmitted  to  the  mus- 
cles, is  derived  from  the  close  conformity  between 
the  conditions  under  which  the  two  phenomena 
respectively  occur.  The  connection  of  the  organs, 
specially  appropriated  to  each  of  these  actions, 
with  the  nervous  system,  —  the  dependence  of  their 
functions  upon  the  integrity  of  this  connection, 
and  upon  the  will  of  the  animal,  —  the  influence 
of  stimulation  applied  to  the  nervous  centres  or 
trunks,  —  the  effect  of  ligature  or  section  of  the 
nerve,  and  the  results  of  poisonous  agents,  —  are 
all  so  remarkably  analogous  in  the  two  cases, 


MUSCULAR    CONTRACTION.  203 

that  it  seems  scarcely  possible  to  refuse  assent  to 
the  proposition,  that  the  nervous  power  is  the 
agent  which  is  instrumental  in  producing  both 
sets  of  phenomena."  ] 

Humboldt2  says  that  "some  of  the  South 
American  gymnoti  were  from  five  to  six  English 
feet  in  length,  and  three  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter.  The  rows  of  little  yellow  spots  are  sym- 
metrically arranged  along  the  back,  from  the  head 
to  the  end  of  the  tail,  every  spot  surrounding  an 
excreting  duct.  The  skin  of  the  animal  is  coated 
with  a  slimy  matter,  which,  as  tested  by  Volta, 
serves  to  conduct  electricity  twenty  or  thirty  times 
better  than  water." 

Mr.  Sidney  says  of  an  eel  in  the  Royal  Institute 
in  London  :  "  On  giving  the  animal  a  good  shaking 
with  the  wires  he  became  angry,  emitting  a  dis- 
charge which  caused  an  electric  spark  to  pass  be- 
tween a  knob  and  piece  of  gold-leaf,  which  was 
partially  burned  thereby.  Compound  substances 
were  decomposed,  steel  needles  were  magnetized, 
and  other  phenomena  were  produced  similar  to 
those  presented  by  a  regular  galvanic  apparatus." 
He  adds  that  "  Captain  Basil  Hall  was  laid  pros- 
trate on  the  floor  by  a  shock." 

In  an  experiment  made  with  the  same  eel,  by 
Mr.  Noad,  a  fine  conducting-wire  was  made  red 
hot  by  the  electric  discharges.  A  defiant  life- 

1  Carpenter's  Physiology,  pp.  465,  470. 

2  Annales  de  Chimie,  torn,  n,  p.  255. 


2O4  ELECTRIC    DISCHARGES. 

guardsman  came  down  upon  the  boards  with  the 
clang  of  cuirass  and  sabre,  to  the  great  amuse- 
ment of  the  spectators. 

Faraday,  in  summing  up  the  powers  of  electrical 
fishes,  observes :  "  I  cannot  refrain  from  pointing 
out  the  enormous  absolute  quantity  of  electricity 
which  the  animal  must  put  in  circulation  at  each 
effort.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  common  electrical 
machine  has  as  yet  been  able  to  supply  electricity 
sufficient,  in  a  reasonable  time,  to  cause  true  elec- 
tro-chemical decomposition  of  water;  yet  the  cur- 
rent from  a  fish  has  done  it. 

"  The  electrical  discharges,  each  of  which  en- 
dures for  a  sensible  period  of  time,  resemble  more 
those  of  a  voltaic  apparatus,  intermittent  in  its 
action,  than  those  of  a  Leyden  jar,  which  make 
their  transit  in  an  instant." 

Henry  Letheby1  states  that  "  there  are  arranged 
along  the  interior  of  the  body  of  the  electric  eel 
two  pairs  of  electric  organs,  composed  of  aggre- 
gations of  regular  cells  of  membranous  tissues, 
extending  obliquely  from  within  outward,  and  con- 
taining a  peculiar  albumino-gelatinous  fluid.  The 
dimensions  of  these  cells  are  about  two  hundred  in 
the  space  of  an  inch.  The  entire  number  of  cells 
in  the  batteries  on  both  sides  is  about  five  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand.  There  are  good  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  the 
seat  of  power,  and  that  the  battery  is  no  other 

1  Transactions  of  London  Electrical  Society,  p.  367. 


ELECTRIC    POWER    OF    GYMNOTUS.  205 

than  an  apparatus  for  accumulating  that  power,  as 
electricity  is  accumulated  in  Leyden  jars.  The 
power  exists  only  during  life,  and  while  the  brain 
is  active  ;  and  is  voluntary  and  dependent  on  the 
integrity  [perfect  conductibility]  of  the  nerves. 
Direct  irritation  of  the  brain  will  effect  a  shock." 

Humboldt  narrates  a  conflict  he  saw  in  South 
America  between  electric  eels  and  horses  driven 
into  the  water  among  them,  purposely  to  exhaust 
their  muscular  power.  "  Gradually  the  impetuosity 
of  the  unequal  conflict  diminished,  arid  the  ex- 
hausted eels  dispersed."  He  adds,  "they  require 
long  repose  and  abundance  of  food  to  repair  the 
loss  of  galvanic  force  expended."  This  illustrates 
admirably  the  parallel  between  fatigue  and  en- 
feebled power  of  developing  electric  action. 

In  the  waning  power  of  muscular  action  result- 
ing from  continuous  labors  of  the  day,  and  in  the 
nightly  restoration  of  this  power,  accumulated 
during  the  repose  of  the  muscles,  we  have  the  ren- 
ovation of  the  exhausted  electric  excitation  that 
develops  vitality. 

Some  of  the  lower  classes  of  aquatic  animals 
appear  capable  of  exciting  electrical  luminosity  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree,  producing  the  phospho- 
rescence of  the  sea,  seen  most  remarkably  between 
the  tropics.  The  excitation  from  .the  wheels  of  an 
ocean  steamer  causes  a  wake  so  brilliant  that  it 
lights  up  the  darkness. 

A  less  intense  light  is  sometimes  produced  in 


2O6  ELECTRIC    POWER    OF    ANIMALS 


I 


shallow  water.  We  have  occasionally  seen  it  in 
Narragansett  Bay,  gleaming  with  the  dip  of  the 
oar,  or  the  paddling  with  the  hand. 

The  most  common  source  of  diffused  luminosity 
is  a  minute  animal,  nearly  globular,  having  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  lump  of  homogeneous  jelly,  and 
provided  with  a  stalk-like  appendage.  Microscop- 
ically, it  is  found  to  consist  of  a  sac  with  definite 
walls,  having  its  interior  —  which  is  for  the  most 
part  filled  with  fluid  —  traversed  by  a  network  of  a 
more  consistent  gelatinous  substance,  containing 
numerous  cells ;  the  size  and  form  of  which  are 
continually  undergoing  alterations.  It  has  been 
proved  by  Dr.  Pring,  that  water  containing  nocti- 
luccz,  when  subjected  to  a  magneto-electric  current, 
after  a  time  gives  out  a  steady  and  continued 
flow  of  light  from  the  whole  of  the  water ;  the 
surface  of  which  appeared  spangled  with  number- 
less persistent  points  of  light.  The  light  ceases 
after  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  cannot  be  re- 
produced, evidently  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  the  animals. 

"  Of  all  radiated  animals,  the  acalepha  are  the 
most  distinguished  for  luminosity.  The  light  is 
emitted  particularly  round  the  tentacula,  and  from 
the  ciliated  surfaces  during  the  movements  of  the 
animal ;  it  seems  to  proceed  from  a  very  acrid 
mucus  secreted  from  the  integument. 

"The  luminosity  in  many  of  the  marine  annelida 
is  not  a  steady  glow,  but  a  series  of  vivid  scintil- 


FOR    EXCITING    LIGHT.  207 

lations,  strongly  resembling  those  produced  by  an 
electric  discharge  through  a  tube  spotted  with  tin- 
foil ;  lasting  but  an  instant,  but  capable  of  being 
repeatedly  excited  on  irritating  the  animal. 

"  In  the  glow-worm  the  luminous  matter  con- 
sists of  little  granules,  and  is  contained  in  minute 
sacs  covered  with  a  transparent  horny  lid." 

These  sacs  are  mostly  composed  of  a  close  net- 
work of  finely  divided  tracheae,  which  also  ramify 
through  every  part  of  the  granular  substance. 
The  lid  exhibits  a  number  of  flattened  surfaces, 
so  contrived  as  to  diffuse  light  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous manner. 

That  electric  currents  are  excited  and  trans- 
mitted from  one  part  to  another  of  other  animals 
than  electric  fishes  was  long  ago  incontroverti- 
bly  demonstrated.  The  life -power  both  of  plants 
and  animals  modifies  the  transmission  of  electro- 
dynamic  action.  All  that  has  been  said  of  the 
effects  of  vegetation  in  producing  a  disturb- 
ance of  electric  equilibrium  will  apply  equally  to 
the  nutritive  and  other  processes  of  animals. 
M.  du  Bois-Reymond,  in  his  researches,  has  proved 
that  there  are  no  two  parts  of  the  body,  except 
those  which  correspond  on  the  opposite  sides, 
whose  electric  condition  is  precisely  the  same ; 
and  that  the  differences  between  them  are  greater, 
in  proportion  to  the  diversity  of  the  vital  processes 
which  are  taking  place  in  them,  and  the  activity 
with  which  these  are  carried  on.  Donne  says 


2O8         ELECTRIC  POWER  EXCITES 

that  the  skin  and  most  of  the  internal  membranes 
are  in  opposite  electrical  conditions.  It  has  been 
found  by  experiment  that  galvanism  is  capable 
of  performing  all  the  functions 'of  the  nervous  in- 
fluence in  the  animal  economy. 

So  numerous  are  the  muscles  in  certain  classes 
of  animals,  that  it  seems  indispensably  requisite 
that  some  general  pervading  principle,  like  that 
of  electricity,  should  act  upon  them  in  aggregated 
numbers,  as  well  as  singly.  It  has  been  computed 
that  in  the  animal  structure  of  a  single  pentecrinis 
of  the  class  of  zoophytes,  "  there  are  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  bones,  each  having 
its  appropriate  antagonistic  muscle.  There  must 
be  consequently  three  hundred  thousand  muscles 
to  be  operated  on  by  the  will  of  the  animal."  1 

As  myriads  of  frogs'  legs  might  be  simultane- 
ously contracted  by  the  transmission  of  a  single 
electric  current  through  them  all,  so  might  this 
array  of  muscles  be  similarly  acted  upon  at  once, 
or  in  sections,  by  transmission  of  electric  currents 
subject  to  the  will  of  the  animal. 

By  the  transmission  of  a  current  from  electric 
machines  through  the  motor  nerves,  art  may  over- 
come Nature  in  controlling  animal  motive -power, 
in  despite  of  an  opposing  will. 

Many  years  ago,  while  a  youthful  student  of 
anatomy  and  physiology,  the  writer  witnessed  ex- 
periments with  galvanic  batteries,  on  the  motor 

1  Owen's  lecture  on  Reproduction. 


ANIMAL    MUSCULAR    ACTION.  ^  2CX) 

nerves  of  a  human  subject,  at  a  time  when  they 
attracted  great  attention  from  their  novelty.  The 
most  important  nerves  were  laid  bare,  and  succes- 
sively subjected  to  contact  with  the  connecting 
wires  of  powerful  combined  batteries.  The  trans- 
mission of  the  electric  current  caused  the  arm  of 
the  subject  to  be  uplifted  in  a  menacing  attitude, 
as  when  upraised  in  life  to  rob  a  lonely  traveller ; 
the  fingers  to  move,  and  the  fist  to  be  clenched. 
The  breast  heaved  with  a  convulsive  motion,  as  if 
laboring  heavily  in  an  attempt  to  breathe. 

By  forming  contacts  with  different  nerves  of 
the  face,  the  muscular  contractions  exhibited  a 
fitful  display  of  human  passions.  The  eyebrows 
became  alternately  arched,  and  drawn  down  into 
a  scowl ;  the  nostrils  dilated,  the  mouth  con- 
tracted, as  if  tasting  powerful  acids.  Revenge, 
desire,  and  loathing  were  so  naturally  counter- 
feited, that  it  required  the  stern  test  of  reason 
and  reflection  to  dispel  the  illusion  that  life  had 
been  restored ;  particularly  when  the  eyelid  opened 
with  an  apparent  expression  of  surprise  at  being 
recalled  to  a  world  from  which  he  had  been  ex- 
pelled with  infamy.  The  electric  action  was  finally 
transmitted  through  the  extensor  muscle  of  one 
of  the  retracted  legs;  when  it  became  instantly 
extended,  and  the  foot  was  thrust  violently  against 
the  stomach  of  a  curious  youth,  who  was  leaning 
over  the  table  with  eager  attention.  He  fainted 
away  on  receiving  the  unexpected  kick  from  a 


2IO 


MUSCULAR    CONTRACTION. 


dead  man's  foot.  Then  the  experiment  ended  by 
applying  the  battery  to  revive  the  muscular  action 
of  the  impromptu  patient.  The  blow  was  a  start- 
ling demonstration  of  the  efficient  energy  of  elec- 
tric currents  in  developing  animal  motive-power, 
and  of  the  fact  that  nerves  and  muscles  are 
electrodes. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  P.  M.  Roget,  that  the 
contraction,  or  shortening,  of  the  muscles  may  be 
the  result  of  the  reciprocal  attraction  which  ensues 
between  two  portions  of  conducting  matter  serv- 
ing to  transmit  electric  currents  in  similar  direc- 
tions. 

A  piece  of  wire  wound  in  a  spiral  coil  and  placed 
in  the  circuit  of  a  galvanic  current,  becomes  instan- 
taneously shortened  or  contracted  by  the  lateral 
forces  exerted  between 
each  approximated  coil, 
whenever  the  electric 
current  is  transmitted 
through  it.  The  discov- 
ery, by  microscopic  ob- 
servation, of  spiral  coils 
in  the  cells  of  plants, 
and  also  of  similar  ar- 
rangements of  the  fibres 
of  animal  muscles,  strongly  corroborates  this  sup- 
position. In  Fig.  65  the  wire  coil  is  suspended 
vertically  over  a  glass  cup  filled  with  mercury,  its 
lower  extremity  just  dipping  into  it.  The  electric 


MUSCULAR  CONTRACTION  OF  HEART.     211 

current  is  transmitted  from  one  of  the  binding 
cups  of  the  base  board,  up  the  brass  pillar  to  the 
coil  and  downwards  through  the  coil  to  the  mer- 
cury, which  is  connected  by  a  wire  passing  out  of 
the  bottom  of  the  cup.  While  the  action  is  trans- 
mitted through  the  coils  of  the  wire,  they  are  sev- 
erally propelled  toward  each  other,  whereby  the 
coil  is  contracted  sufficiently  to  lift  the  end  of  the 
wire  out  of  the  mercury.  At  the  instant  this  is 
effected  the  circuit  of  the  current  is  broken,  and 
the  coil  resumes  its  former  length ;  the  lower  end 
of  the  wire  drops  down  into  contact  with  the  mer- 
cury again,  thus  renewing  the  circuit.  This  oper- 
ation being  rapidly  repeated,  the  elastic  coil  is  kept 
quickly  vibrating  up  and  down  with  a  peristaltic  or 
churning  movement,  which  is  sustained  as  long  as 
the  battery  current  is  transmitted  through  it. 

The  peristaltic  movement  of  the  intestines  dur- 
ing the  process  of  digestion,  the  intermittent  spas- 
modic contraction  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  the 
irregular  and  occasional  contractions  of  the  mus- 
cles may  be  effected  in  the  same  manner.  As  all 
molecules  are  current-changers,  there  is  no  lack 
of  these  perfect  little  mechanisms  to  influence  the 
mechanical  action  of  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
valves  of  the  heart.  They  also  change  and  modify 
the  intensity  of  the  currents  and  thereby  the  rapid- 
ity and  strength  of  the  muscular  contractions. 

According  to  Graham's  analysis  of  animal  mus- 
cle, it  appears  that  the  acid  phosphate  of  potash 


212  ELECTRIC    CONDUCTION    BY    NERVES. 

is  an  essential  salt  of  the  juice  of  the  flesh ;  and 
that  the  alkaline  salt  of  the  phosphate  of  soda  is 
essential  to  the  constitution  of  blood,  to  enable  it 
to  perform  its  functions.  Hence  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  the  probable  function  of  the  substan- 
ces which  give  acidity  to  the  juice  of  the  flesh 
and  alkalinity  to  the  blood,  is  the  production  of 
electric  currents.  When  we  see  two  substances, 
one  acid  and  the  other  alkaline,  in  opposite  neg- 
ative and  positive  conditions,  separated  only  by  a 
thin  membrane  permeable  to  both  (by  endosmose 
and  exosmose  action),  and  in  contact  with  muscle 
and  nervous  matter,  as  observed  by  Liebig,  "  we  can 
easily  see  how  electric  currents  may  arise." ] 

The  continuous  transmission  of  electric  action 
must  be  effected  by  establishing  an  electric  closed 
circuit. 

M.  du  Bois-Reymond  discovered  and  established 
the  fact  that  an  electric  current  exists  in  nerves, 
the  conditions  of  which  are  in  most  respects  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  muscular  current.  A  change  in 
the  electric  state  of  muscles  takes  place  in  the  act 
of  contraction. 

Professor  Matteucci  first  made  a  frog  galvano- 
scope.  By  means  of  a  battery  of  ten  thighs,  he 
caused  a  variation  of  from  thirty  to  forty  degrees 
of  the  galvanometer  needle.  From  experiments 
with  this  instrument,  he  demonstrated  that  animal 
nerves  and  muscles  are  electroscopes  of  the  most 

1  Carpenter's  Physiology,  p.  209. 


SENSITIVENESS    OF    NERVES.  213 

delicately  sensitive  character.  Were  they  not 
carefully  covered  up  within  the  interior  of  the 
body,  every  contact  with  metals  and  other  sub- 
stances, and  every  change  of  temperature  would 
induce  muscular  contractions  and  convulsions. 
The  sensations  of  a  bared  tooth-nerve  are  too 
familiar  to  require  description. 

The  proper  electric  current  of  the  frog  bears 
this  curious  analogy  to  the  electric  discharges  of 
fishes,  —  that  it  is  not  manifest  if  the  connection  be 
made  between  corresponding  points  of  the  opposite 
sides ;  but  that  it  shows  itself  when  the  communi- 
cation is  made  between  points  higher  or  lower  in 
the  body,  whether  on  the  same  or  on  opposite  sides. 

A  PLANT  is  a  mechanism  immediately  excited  by 
solar  rays  to  produce  groupings  of  atoms  into 
FOOD  and  FUEL.  An  ANIMAL,  on  the  contrary,  is 
a  mechanism  excited  indirectly  by  the  combustion 
of  this  fuel.  A  vigorous  man  breathes  forth  from 
his  lungs  each  day  a  volume  of  carbonic-acid  gas, 
which  by  analysis  is  found  to  contain  about  thirteen 
ounces  of  pure  carbon.  This  quantity  of  carbon 
is  equivalent  to  an  equal  weight  of  pure  charcoal 
burned  daily  in  his  lungs,  to  develop  electric  exci- 
tation constituting  animal  heat  and  animal  motive- 
power.1 

1  For  a  minute  description  of  the  organs  of  the  eye  and  of  the  ear  see 
Helmholtz's  profound  work  on  "  Sensations  of  Tone "  and  "  Scientific 
Lectures,"  and  Leidy's  and  Sharpey's  editions  of  Quain's  Anatomy,  with 
illustrations  ;  also  Carpenter's  "  Comparative  Physiology." 


214  DIFFERENCES    IN    THE    NERVES 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

LIFE, OR    MUSCULAR    AND    NERVOUS    ACTION 

DEPENDENT    ON    ELECTRIC    EXCITATION. 

TTELMHOLTZ  thus  quotes  from  Johannes 
Muller's  "  Specific  Energies  of  Sense  "  :  — 

" '  The  difference  in  the  sensations  due  to  the 
various  senses  does  not  depend  upon  the  actions 
which  excite  them,  but  upon  the  various  nervous 
arrangements  which  receive  them.' 

"  According  to  Thomas  Young's  hypothesis, 
there  are  three  kinds  of  nerve-fibres  in  the  eye 
with  different  powers  of  sensation  for  feeling  red, 
for  feeling  green,  for  feeling  violet.  In  reality, 
this  assumption  gives  a  very  simple  and  perfectly 
consistent  explanation  of  all  the  optical  phenom- 
ena depending  on  color.  And  by  this  means  the 
qualitative  differences  of  the  sensations  of  sight 
are  reduced  to  differences  in  the  nerves  which  re- 
ceive the  sensations.  For  the  sensations  of  each 
individual  fibre  of  the  optic  nerve,  there  remain 
only  the  quantitative  differences  of  greater  or 
less  irritation. 

"  The  same  result  is  obtained  for  hearing,  by  the 
hypothesis  to  which  the  investigation  of  quality 
of  tone  has  led  us.  The  qualitative  differences 


QUALITATIVE    AND    QUANTITATIVE.  215 

of  pitch  and  quality  of  tone  are  reduced  to  a  dif- 
ference in  the  fibres  of  the  nerves  receiving 
the  sensation,  and  for  each  individual  fibre  of  the 
nerve  there  remains  only  the  quantitative  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  excitement."  * 

It  would  seem,  on  investigation,  that  this  as- 
sumption will  give  "  not  only  a  very  simple  and 
perfectly  consistent  explanation  of  all  optical  and 
auditory  phenomena,  but  also  of  the  phenomena 
peculiar  to  each  individual  organ  in  the  human 
system." 

The  organs "  belonging  to  the  body,  the  heart, 
intestines,  ear,  eye,  and  brain,  &c.,  as  well  as  the 
body  itself,  are  individual. 

Their  individuality  consists  in  the  peculiar 
arrangements  by  means  of  which  their  distinc- 
tive functions  are  performed.  There  are  not 
only  nervous  but  also  muscular  arrangements, 
whose  contractility  is  of  vital  importance  in  pro- 
ducing the  various  motions.  The  nervous  force 
predominates  if  delicacy,  the  muscular  if  strength, 
is  to  be  produced.  These  varying  combinations 
of  nerve  and  muscle  are  molecular  arrangements. 

All  molecules  are  electro-magnetic.  As  the 
human  system  is  composed  of  molecules,  the 
body  itself  and  its  molecular  groupings  into  dis- 
tinctive organs  must  also  be  electro-magnetic. 
As  each  molecule  serves  as  an  electric  machine 
for  developing  a  peculiar  reaction,  so  each  kind 

l  Helmholtz's  Sensations  of  Tone. 


2l6      DISTINCTIVE    MOVEMENTS    OF   MOLECULES. 

of  groupings  of  molecules  similarly  serves  to 
develop  a  peculiar  electro-mechanical  reaction, 
which  constitutes  the  characteristic  properties 
of  various  compound  substances. 

As  before  stated,  the  shapes  of  crystals  are 
deemed  by  chemists  to  be  indications  of  the 
peculiar  kinds  of  molecules  fitting  to  each  other 
electro-magnetically,  according  to  the  angles  of 
their  various  sides.  Some  are  hexagonal,  some 
polygonal,  some  rectangular,  &c. ;  each  showing 
their  characteristic  forms  of  polarization,  the  nor- 
mal condition  of  each  being  different.  In  the 
formation  of  crystals  we  have  perhaps  a  glimpse 
of  the  way  in  which  molecular  forces  work,  and 
of  the  great  power  requisite  to  move  them. 

With  the  peculiar  organization  and  form  of 
each  kind  of  molecule  there  must  be,  when  ex- 
cited, a  consequent  peculiarity  of  vibration ;  and 
thus  probably  are  produced  the  different  move- 
ments,—  as  the  rhythmic  and  peristaltic.  No 
doubt,  if  not  beyond  the  range  of  future  micro- 
scopic vision,  distinctive  movements  will  be  dis- 
covered peculiar  to  the  brain,  to  the  eye,  to  the 
ear,  and  to  the  other  organs ;  and  we  may  yet  be 
able  to  detect  and  recognize  the  different  kinds  of 
molecules  by  the  individuality  of  their  vibrations. 

Molecules  are  als'o  machines  for  modifying,  dif- 
fusing, and  directing  electro-mechanical  action. 

"  An  electro-magnet  is  a  magnet  whose  mag- 
netic power  subsists  during  the  passage  of  the 


RHYTHMIC    MOVEMENTS.  217 

current  of  a  voltaic  pile,  and  ceases  when  the 
current  is  discontinued." s 

Molecules  of  one  kind  are  peculiarly  arranged 
in  a  whorl  or  vortex  (the  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  the  heart),  producing  when  in  a  state 
of  excitation  the  rhythmic  motion.  The  less 
complicated  and  simple  spirals  are  probably  modi-- 
fications  of  the  intricate  whorl,  producing  a  less 
powerful  movement. 

It  is  seen  that  a  portion  of  the  muscular  fibres 
which  surround  the  auriculo-ventricular  orifices 
of  the  heart  are  continuous  with  the  segments  of 
the  valves,  and  with  the  chordce  tendenece,  and 
through  them  with  the  musculi  papillares,  the 
fibres  of  which  belong  chiefly  to  the  innermost 
layer.  As  these  spiral  electrodes  ascend  inter- 
nally in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which 
they  descend  externally,  "  consequent  points  or 
secondary  poles  " 2  are  produced,  and  the  electric 
current  transmitted  in  one  direction  would  cause 
the  contraction  of  the  musculi  papillares,  thus 
closing  the  valves  of  the  heart  by  making  the 
segments  tense ;  and,  transmitted  in  the  other 
direction,  would  allow  the  valves  to  remain  open. 
"  This  rhythmic  contraction  of  the  muscles  is 
continually  and  regularly  repeated  after  short 
and  equal  intervals  of  repose."  Annular  fibres 
encircle  the  auricular  appendages  of  the  heart 

1  Guillemin's  Forces  of  Nature,  p.  16. 

2  Ibid.     Fig.  422,  p.  6 1 6. 


2l8          NERVOUS    FIBRILS    OF    EYE,    EAR,    ETC. 

from  end  to  end,  some  longitudinal  fibres  run- 
ning between  them. 

In  the  intestines  a  peculiar  molecular  arrange- 
ment of  nerve  and  muscle  is  also  found,  as  well 
as  circular  and  longitudinal  fibres,  which  are  con- 
tinuous from  the  czsophagus  to  the  rectum.  This 
motion  of  the  intestines  is  called  the  peristaltic,  or 
churning  motion ;  and  without  doubt  is  another 
manifestation  of  the  periodic  impulse. 

The  eye  is  protected  by  a  strong  membranous 
covering.  The  rods  and  cones  are  its  distinctive 
molecular  arrangement.  A  single  nervous  fibril 
runs^from  each  of  these  cones  through  the  trunk 
of  the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain  separately  from 
its  neighbors,  effecting  a  direct  and  continuous 
connection  with  the  brain.  As  this  peculiar 
molecular  arrangement  differs  from  those  of  the 
heart  and  intestines,  we  may  naturally  infer  that 
the  periodic  excitation  transmitted  to  the  eye 
produces  there  a  distinctive  motion. 

In  the  ear  we  find  that  electric  vibrations  are 
gradually  changed  into  currents  by  the  action  of 
the  ossicles,  in  passing  from  the  external  ear  to 
the  brain,  and  that  the  connection  is  continuous. 
These  ossicles  in  the  drum,  and  Corti's  rods  and 
arches  in  the  cochlea,  form  the  peculiar  molecular 
arrangements  of  the  ear;  and  we  may  infer  that 
the  periods  of  rhythmic  flow  and  rest  penetrate 
this  strange  musical  gallery,  making  its  chords 
respond  more  quickly  and  sympathetically  to  the 
electric  vibrations  that  sweep  over  them. 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    BRAIN. 


219 


"  The  action  of  the  voltaic  current  in  the  or- 
gans of  the  senses  in  living  beings  produces  pre- 
cisely the  sensations  belonging  to  each  of  them. 
By  exciting  the  optic  nerves  the  sensation  of 
light  is  produced ;  and  that  of  sound,  if  the  nerves 
of  the  ear  are  touched."  x 

The  brain,  according  to  Vauquelin's  analysis,  is 
composed  of 

Albumen 7.0 

Fatty  matter 4.6 

Phosphorus 2.0 

Sulphur,  salts,  and  acids 6.4 

20.0 
Hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  proportion  constituting  water    80.0 

1000 

The  white  substance  of  the  brain  and  nerves 
contains  nearly  seventy-five  per  cent  of  water ;  the 
gray  about  eighty-five  per  cent.  The  proportion 
of  water  is  less  in  the  spinal  cord,  and  still  less  in 
the  nerves. 

This  analysis  shows  that  water  constitutes  four- 
fifths  of  the  human  brain ;  and,  as  Dr.  Hare  re- 
marks, "  this  is  the  best  account  it  has  hitherto 
pleased  God  to  enable  the  brain  of  man  to  give 
of  its  own  constitution." 

The  four  principal  parts  into  which  the  en- 
cephalon  is  divided  are  so  intimately  connected 
externally  and  internally  by  the  white  nerve-fibres, 
—  the  white  substance  consisting  of  tubular  fibres 
and  the  gray  substance  consisting  of  angular, 

1  Guillemin's  Forces  of  Nature,  p.  603. 


220      THE  BRAIN  AN  ELECTRIC  ORGAN. 

round,  oval,  or  fusiform  nerve-cells,  —  that  they 
constitute  but  one  organ. 

From  its  chemical  analysis  and  molecular  ar- 
rangements we  may  assume  the  distinctive  func- 
tion of  the  brain  to  be  that  of  a  voltaic  battery. 

The  marvellous  convolutions  and  s^llc^,  or  fur- 
rows, of  the  brain  may  serve  as  leaves  of  the  bat- 
tery ;  and  they  present  an  extent  of  surface  to  the 
battery  fluid  which  it  would  be  impossible  to 
obtain  in  any  other  way. 

Thus  continuity  and  intensity  of  electric  action 
can  be  effected  in  a  very  small  space. 

The  spiral  ganglia  probably  serve  as  relay  bat- 
teries. And  here  again  we  may  conclude  that  a 
gentle,  modified,  and  distinctive  periodic  motion 
is  transmitted  through  these  convolutions  in  har- 
mony with  the  heart-beat,  keeping  the  brain  as  it 
were  on  the  qui  vive,  a  faithful  sentinel  to  the 
enthroned  will  of  man. 

We  may  assume,  then,  that  the  brain  is  elabo- 
rated for  the  transmission  of  electric  communica- 
tion to  and  from  itself,  and  to  and  from  each  part 
of  the  body ;  also  that  this  transmission  depends 
on  the  integrity  of  the  nerves,  and  ceases  with 
life. 

Fluid  is  essential  to  a  powerful  battery  current. 
It  predominates  in  the  brain,  eye,  ear,  and  various 
other  organs ;  and  in  every  part  of  the  human  body 
chemical  elements  and  molecular  arrangements, 
requisite  for  the  formation  and  continuance  of  a 


ACID    AND    ALKALINE    STATES.  221 

voltaic  battery,  are  found ;  and  where  these  exist 
voltaic  electricity  will  be  produced. 

Professor  Pepper  says T  "  that  it  is  a  remarka- 
ble fact  that  when  an  acid  and  alkaline  solution 
are  so  placed  that  their  union  may  be  effected 
through  the  substance  of  an  animal  membrane, 
or  indeed  any  porous  diaphragm,  a  current  of 
electricity  is  evolved.  Now,  with  the  exception 
of  the  stomach  and  caecum,  the  whole  extent  of 
the  mucous  membrane  is,  in  the  human  subject, 
bathed  with  an  alkaline  mucous  fluid,  and  the 
external  covering  of  the  body  —  the  skin  — 
is  as  constantly  exhaling  an  acid  fluid.  The 
mass  of  the  animal  frame  is  thus  placed  be- 
tween the  two  great  envelopes,  the  one  alkaline 
and  the  other  acid,  meeting  only  at  the  external 
outlets.  This  arrangement  has  been  shown  by 
Donne  to  be  quite  competent  to  the  evolution 
of  electricity." 

Electric  currents  are  vibrations  moving  with 
increased  velocity,  being  more  or  less  rapid  as 
the  velocity  is  accelerated  or  retarded.  Vibra- 
tions caused  by  electric  excitation  may  increase 
in  velocity  to  a  current,  and  a  current  decrease 
in  velocity  to  vibrations  and  to  a  state  of  equi- 
librium. 

In  the  systemic  circulation,  the  blood  is  trans- 
mitted by  the  periodic  contraction  through  the 
whole  vascular  system.  It  is  conveyed  from  the 

1  Cyclopaedic  Science,  p.  287. 


222  CIRCULATION    IN    THE    ARTERIES. 

left  ventricle  of  the  heart  by  arteries  and  capil- 
laries, and  returned  by  the  veins  to  the  opposite 
and  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  again  enters  the 
systemic  circulation.  Beside  elasticity,  arteries 
are  endowed  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
contractility,  by  means  of  which  they  can  narrow 
their  calibre. 

"  Tonicity,  or  the  tonic  state,  is  no  doubt  a 
species  of  contraction,  as  well  as  the  more  con- 
spicuous and  powerful  action  with  which  it  alter- 
nates ;  but  it  is  employed  merely  to  maintain 
equilibrium,  not  to  cause  motion,  —  continuing 
during  sleep,  when  volition  is  in  abeyance,  and 
occasioning  no  fatigue.  When  the  nerves  are 
cut  it  ceases,  and  the  muscles  become  flaccid."  ' 

There  is  also,  so  to  speak,  a  continuous  mus- 
cular as  well  as  vascular  current,  caused  by  a 
great  number  of  contractions  repeated  at  very 
short  intervals,  and  also  excited  by  periodic  con- 
traction. Contractions  caused  by  strychnine  have 
been  known  to  follow  each  other  with  such  ra- 
pidity as  to  disrupt  a  muscular  fibre,  showing 
the  marvellous  force  of  molecular  action. 

Wollaston  describes  a  remarkable  sound  which 
is  heard  when  the  ear  is  applied  over  a  muscle 
during  its  action.  Roget  supposed  this  "  susur- 
rus,"  as  he  names  the  sound,  was  caused  by  a 
sort  of  peristaltic  motion  of  the  fibrils.  He  sup- 
posed, also,  that  the  oscillations  of  the  fibrils  and 

1  Leidy's  Quain,  vol.  i.  p.  328. 


PERIODIC    MOLECULAR    MOVEMENT.  223 

the  accompanying  sound  are  constant,  but  that 
they  are  greatly  increased  during  the  contraction 
of  the  muscle.1 

There  is,  we  may  infer,  a  similar  periodic  and 
continuous  excitation  transmitted  through  the 
nerve-fibres,  though  it  may  not  have  been  de- 
tected on  account  of  the  delicacy  of  the  molecular 
arrangement. 

"  The  cilia,  or  hair-like  processes  on  the  epithe- 
lium, execute  a  lashing  motion  when  not  acting 
very  briskly,  but  when  in  a  state  of  very  rapid 
excitation  their  motion  is  like  that  of  the  waving 
of  a  field  of  wheat  in  the  wind,  or  of  swiftly  run- 
ning water.  The  undulation  —  or,  as  it  may  be, 
the  current  —  always  moves  in  the  same  direction 
in  the  same  parts.  The  impulse  which  the  cilia 
communicate  to  the  fluids,  or  other  matter  in 
contact,  maintains  a  continuity  of  motion  and 
direction.  Thus  in  the  wind-pipe  the  mucus  is 
conveyed  always  upward  toward  the  larynx." 

We  may  assume  then,  from  the  continuity  of 
this  periodic  molecular  movement  (which  is  al- 
ways in  one  direction  in  the  same  parts),  that 
the  periodic  electric  excitation,  having  its  prime 
impulse  in  the  heart,  is  transmitted  in  a  closed 
circuit  through  the  vascular,  nervous,  and  mus- 
cular systems  of  the  human  body ;  and  that  the 
molecular  vibration  excited  in  each  individual 
organ  is  distinctively  its  own. 

1  Leidy's  Quain,  vol.  i.  pp.  226,  227. 


224  VOLUNTARY   MOTIONS. 

By  these  continuous  and  all-pervading 'undu- 
lations of  the  vital  current,  the  friction  which 
must  attend  the  first  movement  of  every  molecule 
of  matter,  however  delicately  fashioned,  must  be 
prevented,  or  greatly  reduced. 

"  Some  of  the  voluntary  muscles  habitually,  and 
all  occasionally,  act  in  obedience  to  other  stimuli. 
Striped  (or  voluntary)  fibre-muscles  have  been 
detected  in  certain  parts  of  the  skin,  in  the  hair 
follicles,  in  the  internal  ear,  and  in  parts  which 
are  not  under  the  direct  control  of  the  will."  ' 

The  distinction  between  voluntary  and  invol- 
untary muscles  may  perhaps  be  too  sharply  de- 
fined, if  it  exists  at  all.  Voluntary  motions  are 
effected  without  any  thought  of  ours  as  to  the 
way  in  which  they  are  to  be  carried  out.  Were 
we  obliged  to  choose  and  regulate  the  machinery 
for  each  voluntary  act,  our  lives  would  be  given 
up  to  the  work. 

"Will  simply  determines  the  result,  not  the 
special  movements  by  which  that  result  is 
brought  about.  The  determination  of  the  will  is 
carried  into  effect  through  an  intermediate  mech- 
anism which,  without  further  guidance  on  our 
part,  selects  and  combines  the  particular  muscles 
whose  contractions  are  requisite  to  produce  the 
desired  movement. 

"The  sensorium  or  collection  of  sensory  gang- 
lia plays,  so  to  speak,  upon  the  cerebrum,  send- 

1  Sharpey's  Quain. 


AUTOMATIC    MOTIONS.  225 

ing  to  it  sensational  changes  whereby  its  peculiar 
sensation,  as  an  instrument  of  purely  mental  oper- 
ations, is  called  forth ;  and  in  return  the  cerebrum 
appears  to  play  downwards  upon  the  motor  por- 
tion of  the  automatic  apparatus,  sending  to  it 
volitional  impulses  which  excite  its  motorial  ac- 
tivity. And  hence  it  follows  that  all  the  move- 
ments which  are  performed  by  the  instrumentality 
of  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system  are  in  them- 
selves automatic  ;  and  that  the  peculiarity  in  their 
character  —  whether  excitor,  motor,  consensual, 
ideational,  emotional,  or  voluntary — is  due  to 
the  speciality  of  the  source  and  seat  of  the  im- 
pulses which  respectively  originate  them." ' 

We  may  assume  that  the  continuous  periodic 
motion  is  one  and  the  same  as  the  continuous 
automatic  movement  ready  to  be  "  played  upon  " 
by  the  will ;  and  the  "  speciality  of  the  source  and 
seat  of  the  impulses  "  to  be  the  distinctive  nervous 
arrangement  peculiar  to  each  individual  organ. 

1  Carpenter's  Comparative  Physiology,  p.  688. 


226  THE    VITAL   CURRENT 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

DEATH, OR    CESSATION    OF    ORGANIC    ACTION. 

r  I  ^HE  cessation  of  the  continuity  of  the  vital 
current  is  death,  in  whatever  manner  it  may 
be  effected.  There  may  be,  however,  a  tempo- 
rary suspension  and  renewal  of  continuity. 

"  In  the  human  system  extinction  takes  place 
in  the  following  order,"  in  the  circuit  of  the  peri- 
odic motion :  "  It  begins  in  the  left  ventricle  and 
ends  with  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart,  —  Galen's 
itltimum  moriens.  After  most  kinds  of  slow 
natural  death,  the  arterial  trunks  and  left  side  of 
the  heart  are  found  to  be  almost  or  even  com- 
pletely empty,  and  the  venous  arteries  to  be  full 
of  blood.  There  are  certain  kinds  of  sudden 
death  in  which  the  vitality  of  the  whole  system 
appears  to  be  simultaneously  destroyed,  and  the 
blood  remains  in  the  vessels  as  it  was  in  the 
moment  of  decease."  The  muscles  of  man  cease 
to  be  irritable  within  a  few  hours  after  death. 

"  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  sympa- 
thetic system  constitutes  the  channel  through 
which  the  passions  and  emotions  of  the  mind 
affect  the  organic  functions ;  and  this  especially 
through  its  power  of  regulating  the  calibre  of  the 
arteries. 


INFLUENCED    BY    EMOTIONS.  22 7 

'  We  have  examples  of  the  influence  of  these 
states  upon  the  circulation,  in  the  palpitation  of 
the  heart,  which  is  produced  by  an  agitated  state 
of  feeling;  in  the  syncope  or  suspension  of  the 
heart's  action,  which  sometimes  comes  on  from  a 
sudden  shock ;  in  the  act  of  blushing  or  turning 
pale,  which  consists  in  the  dilatation  or  contrac- 
tion of  the  small  arteries ;  and  in  the  sudden 
increase  of  the  salivary  and  lachrymal  secre- 
tion under  the  influence  of  particular  states  of 
mind. 

"In  asphyxia  the  deficient  supply  of  arterialized 
blood  to  the  brain  soon  paralyzes  its  functions; 
and  the  nervous  stimulus  (electric  current)  re- 
quired for  the  respiration  being  withheld,  the 
movements  cease.  But  if  the  chest  be  artificially 
inflated  and  emptied,  and  the  alternate  move- 
ments be  prolonged,  vital  action  may  again  be 
set  in  motion." 

In  drowning,  the  water  in  the  mouth  and 
throat  keeps  the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  the 
lungs,  producing  coagulation  of  the  blood,  and 
consequent  cessation  of  the  vital  current. 

"  Kiihne  maintains  that  the  albuminoid  mat- 
ter of  muscle,  liquid  during  life,  coagulates  after 
death,  and  thereby  gives  rise  to  the  cadaveric 
rigidity  which  then  invades  the  muscles. 

"  If  the  cessation  of  respiratory  movements  re- 
sults, as  when  narcotism  is  induced  by  poisoning 
with  opium,  continuance  of  vitality  may  be  pro- 


228  EFFECT    OF   THE    PASSIONS. 

longed    by   artificial  respiration," '  —  as   also    in 
drowning. 

In  death  by  thirst,  the  fluids  of  the  body,  which 
are  so  necessary  to  the  creation  of  electricity,  are 
exhausted  and  the  whole  system  tortured  while 
the  vital  current  is  gradually  arrested. 

The  excitation  of  the  electric  current  can  be 
increased  by  violent  passion  to  such  an  intensity 
that  disintegration  and  death  will  ensue,  —  as  a 
wire  will  be  disintegrated  by  a  powerful  voltaic 
current.  Joy  may  kill  by  an  intense  electro- 
dynamic  action.  Fear  may  produce  an  electro- 
static condition,  so  that  the  heart  ceases  to  beat. 
If  this  condition  continues,  the  power  of  recu- 
peration is  lost,  and  death  ensues. 

A  blow  originates  in  the  will.  The  result  is  a 
small  lightning  bolt,  transmitted  over  electrodes, 
impinging  against  another  body.  No  doubt  if  the 
points  of  contact  in  the  two  bodies  were  visible, 
we  should  see  the  electric  fluid  passing  from  one 
to  the  other.  A  diminution  and  even  reversal 
of  its  own  proper  current  has  been  found  by 
M.  DuBois  Reymond  to  follow  severe  injuries 
of  the  nerves  by  mechanical,  thermal,  or  chemical 
agencies.  A  sudden  blow  or  shock  to  the  emo- 
tional part  of  our  being  may  arrest  the  vital  cur- 
rent, as  well  as  a  blow  on  the  physical  frame. 
Often  preceding  death  the  pulse  flickers  and  the 
ebbing  current  of  life  subsides  into  scattering 
vibrations,  before  its  final  equilibrial  rest. 

1  Ouain's  Anatomy. 


ORGANIC    DECOMPOSITION.  2 29 

"  The  effect  of  poison  on  all  animals  is  death ; 
but  dilution  delays  the  effect,  and  when  carried 
further  prevents  it  altogether;  and  hence  it  is 
probably  due  to  a  chemical  alteration  of  the 
tissue. 

"  Chemical  action  or  over-action  will  destroy 
the  living  tissues  of  the  body,"  '  and  consequently 
the  continuity  of  the  vital  electric  current. 

The  most  frequent  and  powerful  source  of 
electric  disturbance  is  chemical  action ;  there 
being  probably  no  instance  of  chemical  union  or 
decomposition  in  which  the  electric  condition  of 
bodies  is  not  altered.  Very  many  drugs  taken 
into  the  system  produce  disintegration  or  decom- 
position :  the  hydrogen  in  the  body,  leaving  the 
carbon,  unites  with  the  oxygen  in  the  drugs 
and  organic  tissues. 

In  the  work  of  disorganization  nitrogen  has 
an  active  part.  Its  original  name  was  "azote," 
a  descriptive  term,  meaning  "  against  life?  Its 
influence  in  facilitating  the  separation  of  the 
molecules  of  hydrogen  from  their  union  with 
those  of  carbon  in  organic  substances  has  been 
noticed  (p.  180),  in  relation  to  prussic  acid  and 
other  compounds. 

The  molecules  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  com- 
posing the  blood  and  flesh  of  living  animals 
combine  to  form  water,  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  molecules  of  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of 

1  Carpenter's  Physiology. 


230  NITROGEN    AS    A    DISORGANIZED 

silver,  and  leave  the  black  carbon  visible  on  the 
surface.1 

The  impregnation  of  the  blood  by  molecules 
of  nitrogen  inhaled  into  the  lungs  from  decom- 
posing organic  substances  (of  which  it  constitutes 
a  material  part)  facilitates  a  similar  union  of  the 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  blood,  in  the  form 
of  water,  with  the  evolution  of  "  fever-heat."  Thus 
the  bile  and  blood,  in  cases  of  yellow  fever,  are 
decomposed,  and  the  residuary  carbon  or  char- 
coal constitutes  the  "  black  vomit."  In  the  chol- 
era, a  corresponding  resolution  of  the  bile  and 
blood  into  water  is  manifested  by  the  profuse 
aqueous  secretions,  and  the  dark  carbon  appar- 
ent in  the  collapsed  veins. 

The  large  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  pure  atmos- 
pheric air  is  combined  with  just  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  to  develop,  by  the  electro-magnetic 
union  of  the  latter  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
of  the  blood,  the  precise  temperature  of  98°  Fahr., 
marked  as  "  blood-heat." 

When  the  molecules  of  oxygen  are  in  excess 
of  that  proportion,  an  over-excitation  of  the  hu- 
man system  ensues,  —  such  as  is  caused  by  nitrous 
oxyde,  or  "laughing-gas."  When  the  molecules 

1  Even  light  induces  the  electro-magnetic  union  of  molecules  of  hydro- 
gen with  those  of  oxygen,  in  the  organic  substances  of  paper  and  collo- 
dion impregnated  with  molecules  of  nitrogen,  and  converts  them  into 
water ;  leaving  the  carbon,  deposited  as  black  charcoal,  to  form  the 
shades  in  pictures  produced  by  photographic  processes.  The  excess  of 
nitrogen  in  yeast  is  the  predisposing  cause  of  the  decomposing  fermenta- 
tion of  vegetable  substances  with  which  it  is  combined. 


ACTION    OF    NITROGEN    AS    MALARIA.  231 

of  nitrogen  are  in  excess  of  that  proportion,  a  cor- 
responding depression  of  the  vital  powers  takes 
place.  Indeed,  nitrogen  in  excess,  or  free  nitro- 
gen from  decomposing  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances, constitutes  the  real  miasma,  or  malaria. 

Decomposition  of 'all  organic  substances  ceases 
with  a  reduction  of  temperature  to  that  of  frost. 
This,  therefore,  brings  a  cessation  of  yellow  fever 
and  other  diseases  springing  from  such  decom- 
position. 

These  molecular  actions  and  reactions  in  living 
animal  bodies  are  governed  by  the  universal  laws 
of  the  planetary  forces.  When  these  laws  are 
countervailed  from  any  cause,  they  produce  sick- 
ness and  disease.  The  preservation  of  health 
depends  on  a  strict  obedience  to  these  laws, 
which  regulate  the  circulation  of  electric  currents 
through  all  the  conducting  nerves.  A  momentary 
deficiency  or  reversal  of  these  currents,  —  by  ex- 
posure to  a  current  of  cold  air,  or  by  a  draught 
of  cold  water,  or  an  excess  of  excitation  by  a 
draught*  of  alcohol,  —  may  suddenly  terminate 
the  existence  of  a  human  being  on  earth. 

Whatever  may  be  the  apparent  cause  of  death, 
its  real  cause  is  the  cessation  of  the  continuity  of 
the  vital  current. 

Then  the  axial  and  orbital  forces  resume  their 
sway,  and  in  death  the  distinctive  organs  of  the 
human  system  are  decomposed,  and  the  whole  or- 
ganism is  resolved  into  the  carbonic-acid  gas, 
water,  and  nitrogen  of  which  it  mainly  consists. 


232  COMPENSATING    MOVEMENTS, 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

EQUILIBRIUM     AND     PERIODICITY     OF    AXIAL    AND 
ORBITAL    REVOLUTIONS. 

/CONNECTED  with  the  diamagnetic  current 
of  electro-magnets  are  consequent  polarity, 
static  and  dynamic  conditions,  or  states  of  rela- 
tive equilibrium  and  activity.  These  states  or 
conditions  are  subject,  in  the  axial  and  orbital 
revolutions,  to  a  law  of  compensating  movements. 

"  If  an  axial  rotation,  as  well  as  a  horizontal 
rotation,  is  communicated  by  an  impulsive  force, 
analysis  shows  that  it  may  be  applied  in  any 
plane  intersecting  the  horizontal  in  the  line  of 
nodes ;  but  if  applied  in  the  plane  of  the  equator 
(where  it  can  communicate  nothing  but  an  axial 
rotation),  or  in  the  horizontal  plane,  its  intensity 
must  be  infinite."  * 

"  When  the  earth  is  at  one  or  the  other  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  plane  of  the  equator  prolonged 
passes  precisely  through  the  centre  of  the  sun. 
The  two  poles  of  the  planet  are  then  symmetri- 
cally placed  with  regard  to  the  radiant  body."  2 
This  is  a  static  polarity  and  dynamic  diamagne- 
tism. 

1  J.  G.  Barnard,  on  the  Gyroscope,  p.  559. 

2  The  Heavens,  p.  118.     Guillemin. 


KEPLER'S  LAWS.  233 

11  Newton  showed  that  if  the  planets  move  round 
the  sun  describing  elliptical  curves,  according  to 
laws  (the  discovery  of  which  is  due  to  Kepler),  it 
is  because  they  are  submitted  to  a  constant  force, 
located  as  it  were  in  the  sun,  —  a  force  the  direc- 
tion of  which  is  that  of  a  radius  vector,  or  a  right 
line,  which  joins  the  planet  and  the  common 
focus." 

Is  it  not  possible  that  the  elliptical  orbit  of  the 
earth  may  be  produced  by  the  (so-called)  repul- 
sion of  poles  of  the  same  name  of  the  sun  and 
earth,  propelling  them  apart  in  one  direction  in 
summer,  and  the  (so-called)  attraction  of  poles  of 
contrary  names  of  the  sun  and  earth  propelling 
them  together  in  another  direction  in  winter  ? 

The  apsis  line  connects  the  aphelion  and 
perihelion  points,  and  passes  through  the  sun ; 
so  that  the  most  direct  and  powerful  repulsion 
and  attraction  between  the  sun  and  earth  occurs 
at  these  points. 

Kepler's  second  law.  is  thus  stated :  "  In  the 
motion  of  a  planet  around  the  sun,  the  radius 
vector  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  sun  to  the 
planet  sweeps  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 

"  Every  planet  moves  round  the  sun  with  varia- 
ble velocity,  and  more  rapidly  as  it  approaches  the 
common  focus.  The  earth,  therefore,  moves  less 
quickly  during  the  summer  season  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  than  during  the  winter  season." x 

1  The  Heavens,  p.  121.     Guillemin. 


234   EXPERIMENTS  OF  MAYER  AND  BARLOW. 

There  is,  therefore,  in  the  heavenly  bodies  vary- 
ing velocity  with  compensating  axial  and  orbital 
movements. 

The  same  laws  of  magnetic  force  may  be  as- 
sumed to  govern  the  revolution  of  the  solar  system 
in  its  vast  orbit  around  some  central  sun,  "occu- 
pying twenty-six  thousand  years,  as  govern  the 
revolution  of  our  earth  around  its  sun.  The  mar- 
vellous magnetic  variations  and  swayings,  which 
seem  at  present  beyond  the  power  of  man's  cal- 
culation and  comprehension,  may  perhaps  some 
day  be  found  to  coincide  with  the  magnetic  laws 
of  the  earth's  translation ;  with  the  difference  in 
the  scale  of  twenty-six  thousand  years  to  one. 

All  terrestrial  matter  at  rest  is  under  the  influ- 
ence of  terrestrial  currents.  When  an  over- 
powering diamagnetic  current  is  induced  around 
distinct  molecular  groupings,  or  organisms,  they 
are  freed  from  the  earth's  directive  force,  and 
become  electro-magnets. 

To  render  the  needle  of  a  lantern  galvanome- 
ter more  sensitive,  Professor  Mayer  neutralized 
the  earth's  directive  action  on  it,  by  means  of 
two  large  bar-magnets.1 

Professor  Barlow  with  a  battery  current  around 
an  artificial  globe  overpowered  the  terrestrial  cur- 
rents.2 

"  Ampere  constructed  a  static  apparatus,  —  that 

1  A.  M.  Mayer's  The  Earth  a  Great  Magnet,  p.  266. 

2  Experiment  described,  p.  99,  Fig.  22,  ante. 


AMPERE'S    EXPERIMENT.  235 

is  to  say,  a  magnetic  system  indifferent  to  the 
action  of  the  terrestrial  globe;  then  causing  a 
fixed  current  to  act  on  it,  placed  horizontally  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  the  magnetic  meridian, 
from  east  to  west,  he  saw  that  the  action  of  this 
current  was  precisely  t{ie  same  as  the  action  of 
the  earth."  ' 

At  rest,  the  gyroscope  is  a  grouping  of  mole- 
cules, or  a  molecular  arrangement.  Pre-existing 
electric  currents  are  present;  but,  moving  in  all 
directions,  they  neutralize  each  other.  In  order 
to  bring  the  gyroscope  into  an  electro-dynamic 
condition,  a  diamagnetic  current  must  be  induced 
around  it  sufficiently  intense  to  overpower  the 
terrestrial  currents.  This  induction  can  be  ef- 
fected by  whirling  the  disc,  like  a  humming  top, 
by  a  string  wound  round  its  axis,  in  which  case 
the  impulse  will  soon  be  exhausted ;  or  by  an  elec- 
tric current,  when  a  relative  continuity  of  action 
can  be  obtained,  better  illustrating  the  effect  of 
the  terrestrial  currents.  With -the  battery  an  arti- 
ficial current  changer  is  used. 

"  The  law  controlling  the  movements  of  the 
gyroscope  is  as  follows:  Where  a  body  is  acted 
upon  by  two  systems  of  forces,  tending  to  produce 
rotations  about  two  separate  axes  lying  in  the  same 
plane,  the  resultant  motion  will  be  rotation  about 
a  new  axis  situated  in  the  same  plane  between  the 
directions  of  the  other  two.  It  is  coincident  with 

1  Guillemin's  Forces  of  Nature,  p.  612. 


236  MOTIONS    OF    THE   GYROSCOPE 

the  standard  point."  The  disc  and  all  the  con- 
nected parts  of  the  gyroscope  are  free  to  move  in 
any  direction. 
A 


66. 

If  the  weight  w  be  placed  near  the  fulcrum  c, 
so  as  slightly  to  underbalance  the  disc,  beside 
rotating  rapidly  on  its  axis,  it  begins  a  slow  orbi- 
tal revolution  in  the  direction  in  which  the  under- 

i 

side  of  the  disc  is  moving. 

By  attaching  the  arm  and  counterweight  so  as 
to  balance  the  disc  exactly  on  the  pointed  stand- 
ard, the  orbital  revolution  ceases,  while  the  axial 
rotation  continues  till  the  impulse  is  exhausted. 

By  overbalancing  the  disc,  the  horizontal  revolu- 
tion is  persistently  maintained,  but  changed  to  an 
opposite  direction,  —  the  direction  in  which  the  top 
of  the  disc  is  turning.  During  the  three  changes 
the  disc  rotates  in  a  constant  direction. 


ANALOGOUS   TO    THOSE    OF    THE    EARTH.        237 

In  comparing  these  two  electro-magnets,  we  find 
that  the  gyroscope,  like  the  earth,  has  its  diamag- 
netic  current  and  polarity;  its  axial  and  orbital 
revolutions ;  its  compensating  movement  and  rela- 
tive static  and  dynamic  conditions ;  the  symmetri- 
cal or  equilibrial  placing  of  its  axis,  answering  to 
the  earth's  equinoctial  position  when  the  orbital 
revolution,  of  the  gyroscope  at  least,  ceases;  a 
declination  of  the  axis  when  the  orbital  revolution 
of  the  gyroscope  is  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
underside  of  the  disc ;  and  an  upward  inclination 
of  the  axis  when  the  orbital  revolution  is  re- 
versed and  is  in  the  direction  of  the  upper  side 
of  the  disc,  answering  to  the  perihelion  and  aphe- 
lion  positions. 

The  rotation  of  both  the  earth  and  the  gyro- 
scope is  in  a  constant  direction  in  the  three  different 
positions  of  their  axes  during  their  orbital  revolu- 
tions ;  and  as  the  gyroscope  in  opposite  positions 
of  its*axis  moves  in  opposite  directions,  may  we 
not  infer  as  a  possibility  similar  movements  for 
the  earth  ? ' 

"  Terrestrial  analogies  afford  us  a  very  sure  guide 
in  the  midst  of  many  perplexities,"  and  the  com- 
bined movements  of  the  gyroscope  fulfil  each 
function  as  completely  as  the  like  movements  of 

1  "  To  say  that  the  equinox  falls  back,  or  retrogrades  is  the  same  as 
saying  that  the  plane  of  the  equator  has  varied  in  position  ;  and  as  the 
axis  of  the  earth  is  always  perpendicular  to  this  plane,  it  follows  that 
this  axis  has  not  remained  rigorously  parallel  to  itself."  —  The  Heavens, 
p.  456.  Guillemin. 


238  SPACE    ABOUT    MOLECULES. 

the  earth ;  and  we  may  reasonably  assume  that 
they  are  governed  by  the  same  laws. 

The  gyroscope  seems  to  be  a  working  model 
of  all  electro-magnets,  from  the  earth  to  the 
minutest  molecule. 

Ampere's  theory  teaches  "  that  the  electric 
currents,  to  .which  magnets  owe  their  properties, 
are  molecular,  —  that  is,  they  circulate  around  each 
particle ;  "  and  also,  "  that  magnetic  force  is  in  an 
eminent  degree  one  of  circulation."  Molecules, 
therefore,  are  electro-magnets.  The  diamagnetic 
current  circulating  around  each  brings  with  it  its 
train  of  sequences. 

With  such  power  of  locomotion,  so  to  speak,  in 
every  electro-magnet,  there  must  be  even  around 
invisible  molecules  an  invisible  or  undetected 
space  existing,  through  which  each  little  molec- 
ular orb  is  rotated  and  translated ;  and  not  only 
so,  but  its  direction  being  changed  by  a  more 
powerful  current,  it  is  often  transported  afar 
through  spaces  intervening  between  molecules 
varying  in  size  and  constitution.  They  are  all 
like  the  great  earth-magnet,  but  in  miniature. 

Reasoning  from  analogy  may  we  not  assume 
that  each  rotating  molecule,  body,  and  solar  sys- 
tem, while  perfect  and  independent  in  its  indi- 
vidual functions,  is  also  in  harmony  with  every 
other  molecule,  body,  and  solar  system,  —  all  be- 
ing governed  by  the  same  laws,  and  together 
forming  a  vast,  united,  and  perfect  universe? 


MOVEMENTS  OF  TORNADOES.        239  . 

"  In  the  great  basins  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
tornadoes  will  spin  rapidly  on  their  axes  for  a 
long  time,  as  stationary  as  a  sleeping  top."  The 
tornado  has  then  only  an  axial  rotation,  like  the 
gyroscope  balanced  on  its  standard.  If  the  axis 
is  inclined,  it  begins  an  orbital  revolution  which, 
in  its  slowness  compared  with  the  velocity  of  the 
axial  rotation,  resembles  the  gyroscope. 

"  While  the  motion  of  translation  of  the  whirl- 
wind may  be  only  ten  miles  or  so  an  hour,  its 
whirling  (axial)  velocity  is  often  a  hundred  miles 
or  more  an  hour.  They  also  move  in  opposite 
directions.  Two  of  them  were  seen  to  whirl 
within  fifty  yards  of  each  other  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  and  in  opposite  directions." 

Mr.  J.  W.  Phelps,  an  eye -witness,  describes  "a 
tornado  about  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  which  had 
several  small  whirls  spinning  around  on  its  circum- 
ference. The  whole  system  together  described  a 
circuit  of  about  one  hundred  yards  across.  We 
watched  it  from  where  it  set  out,  until  it  returned 
to  that  point  again.  It  might  be  compared  to  a 
sun  with  attending  planets  moving  around  a 
common  centre."1 

Herschel's  theory  is  "  that  a  periodical  return  of 
heavenly  bodies  to  the  same  place  is  the  great  law 
of  astronomy,"  as  before  quoted.  The  tendency 
of  matter  "  to  move  in  a  straight  line,"  asserts 

1  The  quotations  are  from  "  Observations  in  the  Rocky  Mountains," 
by  J.  W.  Phelps.  1858-59. 


240  ELECTRIC    CHAIN    OF   THE    UNIVERSE. 

itself  only  when  independent  of  the  circling  plan 
ets  of  the  solar  system ;  for  certain  it  is,  that  all 
the  visible  matter  in  the  material  universe  is  in 
volved  in  the  general  circular  whirls  from  which 
the  descriptive  name  of  "  universe  "  is  originally 
borrowed. 

The  mechanical  action  of  the  revolving  heavenly 
bodies,  transmitted  as  sunshine  to  the  leaves  of 
plants,  puts  in  motion  circulating  currents  of  the 
electric  ether  and  of  sap  therein ;  and,  by  transfer 
as  food,  also  in  living  animal  organisms.  At  the 
instant  when  the  internal  circulating  currents 
cease  in  these  subordinate  electrical  machines,  by 
death,  the  ever-continuing  action  of  the  revolving 
planets,  transmitted  as  sunshine,  again  predom- 
inates over  the  constituent  molecules  of  the  or- 
ganic bodies  of  plants  and  animals. 

The  sunshine  that  quickens  the  formation  of 
vapors  into  a  budding  rose,  radiant  in  color  and 
redolent  with  fragrance,  speedily  dissolves  the 
gathered  rose  into  vapors  that  float  off  in  the  air. 
So  in  the  organic  formation  of  man,  immediately 
after  the  excited  currents  of  electricity  and  of 
blood  cease  to  circulate  "  in  the  inner  sanctuary 
of  life,"  the  vibratory  sunshine  gradually  restores 
the  constituent  molecules  to  their  original  state 
of  invisible  gases,  floating  in  the  atmosphere. 

Thus,  finally,  modern  science  confirms  the 
ancient  answer  to  the  question,  "  What  is  your 


PHYSICAL    LIFE    A    VAPOR.    .  241 

life  ? "  by  verifying  the  fact  that  it  is  really  "  a 
vapor  that  appeareth  for  a  little  time,  and  then 
vanisheth  away." 

To  this  boundary  line  of  Physical  Science  is 
now  traced  the  final  connection  between  mind 
and  matter,  by  the  electric  chain  that  links  to- 
gether molecules  in  organisms  and  solar  systems, 
and  holds  the  whole  material  universe  in  subjec- 
tion to  the  sceptre  of  an  Immaterial  Creator. 


FINIS. 


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